Field Operations, Table of Contents
CHAPTER XL
AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCES IN NORTHRUSSIA
On August 9, 1918, certain units were designatedto constitute the original American contingent of the north Russian forces, sometimescalled the "Murmansk expedition," or "Expedition to the Murman coast."They were: The 339th Infantry; 1st Battalion, 310th Engineers; 337th Field Hospital; and337th Ambulance Company. These organizations, which belonged to the American ExpeditionaryForces, had arrived in England prior to the above date, and at the time were beingprepared and equipped, at Aldershot, for service in Russia. Their instructions providedthat no animals should be taken with them to Russia, but all vehicles, saddlery andharness (except for the field hospital company), and American field kitchens. Britishpersonal equipment was ordered issued, and clothing for winter service, with Russianrifles and Lewis machine guns, Russian pattern. On August 10, modified instructionsdirected that American personal equipment be taken instead of British. Preparations werecompleted and the command embarked on August 27, 1918, and arrived at Archangel onSeptember 4.1
The American forces, numbering 143 officers and 4,334men, after their arrival at Archangel, were promptly disembarked and shortly thereafterdistributed. The 1st Battalion, 339th Infantry, joined the allied forces on the Dwina andVaga Rivers. The 2d Battalion, 339th Infantry, was stationed at the base (Archangel,Bakharitza, and vicinity), with the exception of a detachment on guard duty at Isakagorkaand a detachment at Onega. The 3d Battalion was distributed through the allied forces, twocompanies going to the left wing at Seletskoe. Shortly thereafter regimental headquarterswas located in Archangel. Ambulance Company No. 337 was divided into 3 sections, 1 officerand 35 men being detailed to the allied forces along the railroad, 1 officer and 35 menwith the allied forces on the Dwina, the remaining officers and men to the base. Adetachment of five of the ambulance company personnel and one of the 339th Infantry,Medical Department, accompanied our other troops to Onega by way of Dwina Bay, White Sea,and Onega Bay, where they established a hospital and later accompanied our troops toChekuevo. Field Hospital No. 337 remained at Bakharitza to care for the 378 influenzapatients admitted in September, of which 60 proved fatal. Soon after, however, a sectionof the field hospital established a 100-bed hospital at Bereznik.1
From September, 1918, to May, 1919, occurred a series ofengagements in which 82 Americans were killed and 7 died of wounds.2
Withdrawal of our forces commenced in May, 1919, and onAugust 25 only a small graves registration detachment remained.2
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MEDICAL DEPARTMENT ACTIVITIES
The office of the chief surgeon of the American troopsin North Russia was established in the convalescent hospital (described below) inArchangel, and an assistant represented him in the Dwina area because of its distance (135miles) from the base. All arrangements for medical supplies and personnel were madethrough the deputy director (British) of the medical services.3 In every area the senior medical officer was British. Both armies had tocomply with their respective regulations and some months elapsed before mutuallysatisfactory methods were evolved. The following arrangements were made January 5, 1919,over the signatures of the deputy director of Medical Services (British Army), Frenchchief medical officer, and the chief surgeon, United States troops:3
1. The deputy director of medical services carried outthe general direction of the entire medical services of the force and is responsible tothe general officer commanding in chief.
2. All questions affecting the medical administration ofthe Force and relating to policy, to the drafting of orders, to the distribution,disposal, and relief of personnel and to sanitation will be decided after consultationbetween the senior allied or American administrative medical officer concerned and the D.D. M. S.
3. The chief surgeon, U. S. troops, and allied seniormedical officers have control of their own personnel and will distribute them inconformity with the military and medical situation after consultation with the D. D. M. S.
4. A similar arrangement will hold in regard to fightingforces. With each force there is a senior administrative medical officer who isresponsible to the officer commanding that force and to the D. D. M. S. This officer willwork in close cooperation with the senior allied or American medical officer.
No action affecting different nationalities should betaken until its advisability has been discussed with the representative with the force ofthe senior allied medical officer or of the chief surgeon, U. S. troops.
All assignments of duties or movements, allied orAmerican personnel, will be carried out under the orders of their S. M. O.’s or thechief surgeon or the representative of these officers on the spot.
5. All communications from British medical officers forthe chief medical officers or allied and American troops at G. H. Q. should be madethrough channels to the D. D. M. S.
Similarly all communications from allied or Americanmedical officers will be passed through their own chief medical officers.
6. All differences of opinion which can not be otherwiseadjusted should be referred to S. M. O.’s, the chief surgeon, or the D. D. M. S.
7. In case of emergency the senior medical officer ofthe force or station may issue any order to allied or American medical personnel, but hemust at the earliest opportunity report it to the representative at G. H. Q., ofthe medical service concerned and to the D. D. M. S. through the usual channels.
The most difficult problem for the Medical Department atfirst was proper distribution of its personnel, so as to cover the ground. The front thenheld was approximately 450 miles in length, encircling Archangel on three sides, fromPinega on the east and Ust Padenga on the south, to Onega on the west. The distance fromArchangel to Pinega was 112 miles; from Archangel to Ust Padenga, 234 miles; and fromArchangel to Onega, 145 miles. The total area occupied was approximately 15,000 squaremiles.3 As the American
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troops were not concentrated in one sector, but weredistributed throughout the entire area occupied, it was impossible to maintain theirmedical organizations intact. Officers and enlisted men of the Medical Department,including those on duty with Field Hospital No. 337 and Ambulance Company No. 337,therefore, were "pooled" and detachments varying in strength from 2 to 35 weresent to the various positions, and then moved as the military situation necessitated. Thedetachments with line troops accompanied their respective battalions and were subdividedwhen necessary. Owing to the rapidly changing military situation, the medical detachmentswere often moved and their strength was changed.3
A weekly report showing the distribution of the medicalpersonnel was made to headquarters, A. E. F., North Russia, and a duplicate was sent tothe deputy director of medical services, allied forces, Archangel. In some instances, thepersonnel was assigned to duty in hospitals, dressing stations, and aid posts and underdirection of American medical officers served the needs of both American and alliedtroops, while on other occasions it was assigned to hospitals and dressing stations underBritish, French, or Russian control. Because of the distribution of the allied troops as awhole, all hospitals, dressing stations, and aid posts outside of Archangel cared for sickand wounded of all the allied forces in their respective sectors, regardless of the armyto which they belonged or the nationality of patients admitted. Though this arrangementwas essential under the circumstances, and operated to the best interests of allconcerned, it rendered administration and the keeping of records and returns difficult.3
At first there were no French, Russian, or Italianmilitary hospitals in the advance area, but later, when Russian troops permanently tookover certain forward areas, the hospitals in these areas were transferred to them. In someinstances buildings used as hospitals by British were turned over to the Americans upontheir arrival in an area.3
During the voyage to Archangel an epidemic of influenzadeveloped, the first case being recognized on August 29. Despite all possible precautions,the disease spread rapidly, until, on arrival at Archangel, there were 100 cases on the S.S. Somali, 75 on the S. S. Negoga. No cases occurred on the S. S. Tideus.These were the three vessels which transported the expedition. No deaths occurred atsea. Upon arrival it was found that the British hospitals were able to care for only asmall percentage of the patients. Twenty-five of the most seriously ill were transferredto the British 53d Stationary Hospital, and American emergency hospitals were immediatelyopened. At this time the Archangel district was inadequately provided with hospitals andfacilities to care for the sick. Not until November were enough beds available here tomeet needs imposed by the epidemic. Field Hospital No. 337 took over two Russian barracksat Bakharitza, a small hospital (40 beds) was opened at Smolny Barracks (Archangel), andthe American Red Cross provided a building at the north end of Troitsky Prospekt, which(accommodating 30 patients) was used for hospital purposes. The buildings at Bakharitzaand Smolny Barracks were in a filthy condition, and even after thorough cleaning
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it was necessary to scrub and spray them daily, as theywere infested with vermin.3 It hadbeen anticipated that these accommodations would be temporary only, but the last mentionedcontinued to be utilized for a number of months. A convalescent hospital accommodating 100patients, later enlarged to care for 200, was opened October 8, 1918. This was equippedwith a Thresh disinfestor. It was supplemented by a depot where all men returning to dutywere equipped.4 On November 16,through the cooperation of the American ambassador, the British deputy director of medicalservices and the Russian authorities, the American Red Cross obtained a large buildingadjoining the convalescent hospital which it offered to our Medical Department. The offerwas gladly accepted and the American Red Cross equipped the institution, undertook tomaintain it, and assigned two female nurses to it. The proffer, at the same time, of theservices of one of the American Red Cross medical officers was made. This hospital, whichhad a capacity of 100 beds, later increased, was the base hospital of the expedition andremained in operation until our troops were withdrawn.4 It received 911 patients and performed 103 operations. As it had no X-ray plant,necessary radiographic examinations were made by the British 53d Stationary Hospital,which was provided with equipment for that purpose.5
In addition to the hospitals which have been mentioned,5 infirmaries were established in or near Archangel. A delousing station was placed atSmolny Barracks, and prophylactic stations operated there and at the convalescenthospital. Field Hospital No. 337 remained for a few weeks at Bakharitza to care forinfluenza patients,4 but onSeptember 28 was divided into sections A and B, the former then moving to Beresniki, whereit established a hospital of 100 beds. Section B remained at Bakharitza until October 7,when it moved to Shenkursk, where it operated a hospital of the same size. In January,when Shenkursk was abandoned, section B moved to Osinovo, where from the British it tookover and enlarged the small hospital they had been conducting there.6 Another part of this section took over a detention hospital from the British atUst Vaga. In this, the Dwina Vaga sector, American medical detachments were stationed atMalo Beresniki, Kitskoe, Toulgas, Kurgomin, Ust Padenga, and Chamova, maintaining aidposts, dressing stations, or infirmaries, according to the need.3 At Ust Padenga and at Chamova, 10-bed hospitals, and at Toulgas a 4-bedhospital, were established. At Ust Padenga, the dressing station was moved three timesduring the military activities of January 19, 20, and 21, and was struck once, threepatients being killed and two wounded, among them a medical officer who died later in thehospital at Shenkursk. During the several days’ fighting, and until this lineretreated to Shenkursk, many wounded were brought in to the field hospital and greatlyovercrowded it. On January 24 it was necessary to evacuate this hospital, the Shenkurskhospital (Field Hospital 337, section B). At midnight 96 patients were transported toShegovari, a distance of 20 versts (13.2 miles). This proved very difficult, as the enemymachine guns covered the main roads and in consequence the retreat had to be conductedover roundabout trails through the dense woods. Excellent help was
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given by Lieutenant Tufanoff, Medical Corps, RussianArmy, who later was killed in action at Kitskoe.4
Field Hospital 337, Section A, at Beresniki, was notable to furnish accommodations for the patients in question except for about 12 hours, asits capacity was only 100 beds and it was nearly full at the time of the retreat.Therefore, they had to be sent on to the base at Archangel. In the evacuation to the basebut one patient died, a tuberculous case. This seems remarkable when it is considered howthey were hurried on to Archangel, a distance of some 375 versts (247.5 miles). Thetemperature was about 30? below zero. The patients in the retreat were crowded bycontinually adding more wounded to their sleds. However, all were in sleeping bags andlittle complaint was heard on questioning them on their arrival at Archangel.4
In the Shegovari and Kitskoe region on the Vaga River agreat deal of fighting took place during February, and the medical personnel worked nightand day, often under heavy fire. Patients were evacuated to Ust Vaga, where a dressinghospital had been established, and then sent on to Beresniki to the field hospital there.4 At a later date, a third detachment (C) of FieldHospital No. 337 was formed and established a small hospital at Morjegorskaya.3
At Pinega, the most easterly point of the line, ahospital, with a capacity of 97 beds, was established December 20 by an Americandetachment of 1 officer and 8 enlisted men. It operated until April 8, 1919, when it wasturned over to the Russian medical military department, as American troops were withdrawnfrom the sector.4
A small detachment made up from Ambulance Company No.337 and from medical personnel with line troops accompanied troops beyond Seletskoe, wherethey assisted the British in establishing a small detention hospital which operated untilMay, 1919.4
For the Vologda or railway sector hospital facilitieswere provided in the railroad station at Obozerskaya which was taken over for thispurpose. The hospital here was in position to receive patients from the Onega sector tothe west and from the Seletskoe sector to the east and south, as well as from the railroadarea. A very complete operating car and ambulances were maintained by the British based atthis point. One or more American medical officers and the number of men required were kepton duty in this sector.3
The Onega expedition, which left Archangel September 14,included detachments of our Medical Department personnel which reinforced a Britishhospital at Onega and a dressing station at Chekuevo until American troops were withdrawnfrom that area.7
The supply of drugs, surgical dressings, and appliancesproved sufficient. The type of bed in use practically everywhere—a wooden frame withcanvas top—gave satisfaction, and the supply was ample. Additions to the ration bygifts from the American Red Cross, by requisition of medical comforts from British stores,and by barter with the local citizens for eggs, game, fish, potatoes, and milk madepossible a fairly liberal and varied hospital dietary. In some localities Russian nurses(female) volunteered their services and
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were of material assistance. Except at the most advancedstations, operative work could be done under good conditions, but the distance from thefront in some sectors was so great that, with the difficulty in communication, woundedfrom these points did not receive operative care for several days. In some cases five dayselapsed before they could be given any treatment other than re-dressing of their wounds.The Carrel-Dakin technique was employed whenever possible. Serious difficulties due toshortage of personnel occurred at times. They were really chargeable to poortransportation facilities rather than to lack in the Medical Department strength.3
In the early fall it was possible to evacuate sick andwounded from advanced points to the base on hospital barges. These provided a relativelyrapid and comfortable method of transportation from the Vaga, Dwina, Pinega, and Seletskoesectors. As navigation on the Dwina River became impossible after October 26, 1918, thismethod was no longer practicable. From that time until the river again opened in May thesick and wounded were transferred by horse-drawn sleds, carrying usually one or twopatients each. Various types of covered or closed sleighs were constructed and tested, butall were unsatisfactory, as they either tipped over too easily or proved too heavy. Thecommon Russian sled, built on the lines of a short, flat-bottom boat on runners, wasultimately found best. One of these would carry two recumbent patients. Lying on hay, insleeping bags, covered by several blankets, with hot bricks to the feet, and with head andhands well protected by fur caps and heavy mittens, patients were transported comfortablyin these conveyances. Convoys often were accompanied by our enlisted men to give patientsthe necessary care and attention en route. The journey was broken by frequent stops at therest houses or hospitals which were established at intervals of from 5 to 20 miles alongthe route, and at some of these the convoys passed the night.3 The personnel staffing these places was drawn from the British Royal ArmyMedical Corps. As the distances of advanced points from the base ran up to 224 miles, thetime necessary to perform the journey involved was considerable. Convoys of sick andwounded consisted of from 15 to 50 sleds, the larger convoys being preferable, as therewas less likelihood of enemy attack on them. Small raiding parties and hostile patrols attimes displayed considerable activity along the more exposed portions of the sled routes,notably between Beresniki and Emetskoe. The larger convoys were forced to proceed slowly,rarely averaging over 2 miles per hour.3 Evenunder the best conditions, and when traveling with a light load, a single sled could notmake much more than 3 to 3? miles an hour.
As during the winter daylight was limited to from two tofour hours, much of the traveling was then done in darkness, which was intensified by theheavy forests through which the trail ran for many miles. In spite of these handicaps,over 500 sick and wounded were evacuated by sleds to Archangel during the winter of1918-19. No serious accident occurred; only one death en route was recorded—a case ofadvanced tuberculosis—and no case of frost bite, of freezing, or of any othercondition due to exposure, was reported.
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On the other hand, many cases were observed where thelong journey in the open air proved distinctly beneficial, and patients who had not beenprogressing satisfactorily in hospital sometimes showed marked and rapid improvement enroute. An inspector who investigated several convoys on the Dwina-Vaga front reported thatall the patients said they were well fed, well cared for, and amply protected againstcold. Even with temperatures as low as 50? below zero patients came through very well.3
Direct communication with Archangel by railroad existedat all times from the Vologda sector, and until March, 1919, the majority of casualtiesoccurring in the Onega sector were evacuated by sled to the railroad and then transferredto Archangel by rail.3 In thelatter part of March, Bolshieozerki was captured by the Bolsheviki, and the line ofcommunication between the Vologda and Onega forces was cut for a short time. Until therecapture of Bolshieozerki, casualties occurring in the Onega sector were evacuated bysled to Onega and there treated in a British hospital. From Pinega it was necessary,because of swamps and forests, to evacuate southwest 80 miles to the Dwina River.3
EVACUATION OFSICK AND WOUNDED TO ENGLAND
A total of 527 patients were returned to England forfurther observation and treatment or because of permanent disability. A medical officeraccompanied each group of patients. On June 3, 1919, 325 were evacuated. The considerablenumber at this time was because cases had accumulated during the winter months whentransportation was not available and because the commanding officer, 339th Infantry, hadrequested that only men able to perform full duty be returned to that organization. Manyof the patients in this large group were convalescing and would have been fit for duty ina short time, only 8 of the 325 being classed as "lying down cases."3
EVACUATION OFTROOPS
The first detachment of troops left Economie June 3,1919, on S. S. Czar, carrying 1,668 officers and men. On June 15, the S. S. Menominaand S. S. Porto, sailed, carrying, respectively, 853 and 1,360 troops,representing the balance of the 339th Infantry and the 310th Sanitary Train detachment;this left in Archangel only the 310th Engineers and the commanding general and staff, witha small headquarters detachment, all of whom sailed soon afterward.3
All troops were disinfested and reequipped upon arrivalfrom the several fronts. Prior to embarkation all were inspected for venereal diseases,contagious diseases, scabies, and lice, and ships were rigidly inspected before troopswere allowed to embark. Conditions on board ship were found to be good except that most ofthe ships’ tanks had been refilled for the return voyage with untreated Dwina Riverwater, which was known to be badly contaminated. This necessitated chlorinating all wateron board before troops embarked.3
952-953
SUMMARY OF HOSPITAL FACILITIES8
The location of hospitals, dressing stations, and aidstations is given below.
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|
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Field Hospital No. 337 | Bakharitza | Sept. 6, 1918 | Oct. 6, 1918 | 250 |
Infirmary, 2d Battalion | Archangel | …do… | Nov. 21, 1918 | 40 |
American Red Cross (annex) | …do… | Sept. 7, 1918 | June 3, 1919 | 30 |
American Red Cross hospital | …do… | Sept. 10, 1918 | June 20, 1919 | 85 |
Detention hospital | Seletskoe | Sept. -, 1918 | May 26, 1919 | 80 |
Field Hospital No. 337, detachment A | Beresniki | Sept. 25, 1918 | June 10, 1919 | 100 |
Detention hospital | Obozerskaya | Sept. 29, 1918 | Dec. 1, 1918 | 25 |
Convalescent hospital | Archangel | Oct. 8, 1918 | June 13, 1919 | 225 |
Field Hospital No. 337, detachment B | Shenkursk | Oct. 19, 1918 | Jan. 25, 1919 | 100 |
Detention hospital | Shegovari | Nov. 9, 1918 | Jan. 26, 1919 | 10 |
Do | Pinega | Dec. 6, 1918 | Apr. 8, 1919 | 200 |
Do | Ust Vaga | Jan. 29, 1918 | June 11, 1919 | 20 |
Field hospital, detachment B | Osmovo | Mar. 25, 1919 | May 31, 1919 | 60 |
Field hospital, detachment C | Morjegerskaya | Apr. 17, 1919 | May 10, 1919 | 20 |
Hospital barge No. 335 | Toulgas | May 9, 1919 | June 13, 1919 | 40 |
Aid station | Ust Padenga | (a) | (a) | 10 |
Do | Malo Beresniki | (a) | (a) | 10 |
Do | Chinovo | (a) | (a) | 10 |
Do | Kurgomin | (a) | (a) | 10 |
Do | Chamovo | (a) | (a) | 10 |
Do | Kitsa | (a) | (a) | 10 |
Do | Verst 435 | (a) | (a) | 10 |
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|
|
|
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aDates not given, as these stations were occupied alternately by American and British medical personnel.
Number of hospitals, dressing stations, and aid stations maintained by United States Army Medical Department, Sept. 5, 1918, to June 20, 1919 | 22 |
Number maintained by British Army medical service | 26 |
Total bed capacity, United States Army | 1,375 |
Total bed capacity, British Army | 2,756 |
NOTE.— (1) Bed capacity is approximate, as emergency capacity varied widely in different localities; (2) hospitals were often maintained alternately by American and British medical personnel; the above figures represent as closely as possible hospitals, etc., under distinctive control of each Government; (3) 756 British beds were on H. M. H. S. Kalyan, which was used as a hospital while frozen in the ice during the winter, but left for England June 3, l919.8
| 2,352 |
Total discharged to duty | 1,706 |
Transferred to other hospitals | 12 |
Evacuated to England | 527 |
Remaining June 20, 1919 | 3 |
Died | 104 |
| 2,352 |
Total casualties not admitted to hospital: |
|
| Killed in action | 82 |
| Accidentally killed | 5 |
| Suicide | 1 |
| 88 |
Total missing: |
|
| No information | 36 |
| Heard from as prisoners | 3 |
| Later released by enemy | 4 |
| Later reported dead | 2 |
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|
|
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Total deaths: |
|
| Killed in action | 82 |
| Accidentally killed | 7 |
| Suicide | 1 |
| Died of wounds | 30 |
| Died of disease | 72 |
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Deaths from disease: |
|
| Lobar pneumonia | 36 |
| Bronchopneumonia | 32 |
| Enteritis, chronic, variety undetermined | 1 |
| Tuberculosis, chronic, pulmonary | 1 |
| Tuberculosis (psoas abscess) | 1 |
| Meningitis | 1 |
|
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REFERENCES
(1) Report on North Russian Expeditionary Forces, by Brig. Gen. W.P. Richardson, commanding general, A. E. F., North Russia, June 27, 1919. On file,Historical Section, the Army War College.
(2) Final Report of Gen. John J. Pershing, September 1, 1919.
(3) Report of Medical Service, American Expeditionary Forces, NorthRussia, by Lieut. Col. E. Corning, M. C., June 20, 1919. On file, Historical Division, S.G. O.
(4) Report of work accomplished by the Medical Department since arrivalin North Russia to March 31, 1919, by Maj. Jonas R. Longley, M. C., chief surgeon, U. S.Troops, Archangel, Russia. On file, Historical Section, the Army War College.
(5) Report of activities and war diary, Red Cross Hospital, Archangel,by Maj. W. H. Henry, M. C., commanding officer, undated. On file, Historical Division, S.G. O.
(6) Report of activities and war diary, Field Hospital No. 337,Detachment B., prepared under the direction of the commanding officer, undated. On file,Historical Division, S. G. O.
(7) Report of Medical Department activities, Onega sector, by Lieut.Col. E. Corning, M. C., undated. On file, Historical Division, S. G. O.
(8) Annual Report of the Surgeon General, U. S. Army, 1920, 408, 409.
