CHAPTER XII
Civil Affairs and MilitaryGovernment
DEVELOPMENT
The Army Veterinary Servicewith CA/MG (civil affairs and military government) was an innovation of WorldWar II; it was developed without precedent and prewar planning. Nowhere beforehad Veterinary Corps officers been involved in any kind of administrative,supervisory, or surveillance duties over the veterinary affairs of a foreigncountry, its government and economy. During the war, in the Allied-liberatedcountries and recaptured areas and in the occupation of surrendered countries,these personnel succeeded in the application of civilian public health andveterinary measures which protected the health of the American fighting forcesand its animals against the threats of indigenous animal and foodborne diseases,and concurrently aided in the early restoration and beginning rehabilitationof the respective countries' veterinary public health and agricultural livestockindustries. As will be observed in the following paragraphs, the extent ordegree of veterinary CA/MG activities varied among the theaters and, from timeto time, from that of minimal observance (or surveillance) and assistance incivilian affairs to that of direct military government or of actually conductingor supervising the immediate veterinary services.
The missions and functionsof the Army Medical Department were early defied in Army Regulations to include"the preservation of health and the prevention of disease among personnelsubject to military control, including the direction and execution of measuresof public health among the inhabitants of occupied territory" (1). Then, in1940, the War Department in its field manual on military government describedthe type organization for a civil affairs section of the staff of theatercommanders as including a public health department with a doctor of medicinein charge (2). It further stated that "this department will exercisesupervision over the public health, including sanitation, the control ofcommunicable diseases, the protection of food, milk, and water supply * * * drugs, thepractice of * * * veterinary medicine, diseases of animals, and similarmatters." Later, in December 1943, the foregoing publication was adoptedin a revised form as a joint Army and Navy manual on military government andcivil affairs, and the reference to veterinary matters, especially foodinspection, was repeated in the description of the public health and sanitationfunctions of civil affairs (3). The Navy had no veterinary personnel, but thisreference to veterinary matters in the joint publication undoubtedly gave originto the unexpected utilization of Army Veterinary Corps officers by theNavy-administered CA/MG on islands in the Pacific theater.
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Within the Armyorganization, overall policy matters concerning the administration andgovernment of areas occupied or liberated as a result of military operationswere handled by the Civil Affairs Division, War Department Special Staff. Thiswas established in the spring of 1943 and included a medical or public healthsection as a part of that division's Civilian Relief Branch. Previously, the WarDepartment General Staff's Operations Division (predecessor to the War PlansDivision) had been processing such matters as arose at the time of the invasionof North Africa in November 1942. Even before then, however, theAssistant Chief of Staff, G-1 (Personnel) of the War Department General Staffwas assigned responsibility for selecting military personnel who were to beused in CA/MG activities, but, after the start of the war, the Provost MarshalGeneral actually selected and trained the personnel for such assignments.Liaison and channels of communication were maintained with these by The SurgeonGeneral, who in January 1944 established the Civil Public Health Division as acomponent of the Preventive Medicine Service, Surgeon General's Office. Earlier,or in June 1943, within that office, medical planning for supply aid tocivilians in liberated countries was undertaken in the newly designated CAD(Civil Aid Division) Board. Eventually (in February 1944), this CA/MG planningby both the Preventive Medicine Service and CAD Board was coordinated andcentralized in a specialized branch of the Operations Service, Surgeon General'sOffice. Pertinent matters were referred to the Veterinary Division, SurgeonGeneral's Office, for review and comment, although one veterinary officer wasdesignated part-time membership on the aforementioned supply planning board.
The decision to useveterinary officers in CA/MG operations during World War II was made in thesummer of 1943 by the Civil Affairs Division, upon recommendation of TheSurgeon General. Ever since the development of modern veterinary medicine, theveterinarian has been an important factor in livestock economy through thepreservation of animal health. A healthy livestock industry means increasedanimal work power; increased meat, milk, eggs, and other foods of animalorigin; and increased nonfood products, such as wool, leather, andpharmaceuticals. In more recent years, the veterinary profession has beenincreasingly active in public health functions such as food inspection andcontrol of animal diseases transmissible to man. All of these functions arehighly important to CA/MG operations, both in combat and occupation.
Outside of the Armyorganization, there were two major policy-making agencies concerned with CA/MGactivities. One was the Joint Chiefs of Staff (Army and Navy), which referredits problems to the War Department's Civil Affairs Division and the JointPost-War Committee but, in March 1945, established its own Joint Civil AffairsCommittee. These committees were wholly military and considered matters forgeographic areas of joint Army and Navy responsibility, as in the Pacifictheaters. The other
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agency was the CombinedChiefs of Staff (United States and United Kingdom) which in July 1943 created its own CombinedCivil Affairs Committee. The latter, with office location in Washington, D.C., and a London Subcommittee (established inJanuary 1944) coordinated civil and military interests in furnishingdirectives and guidance regarding the administration and government of thecivil populations in those geographic areas or countries which were liberated oroccupied incident to combined American?British operations, as in the Europeanand Mediterranean theaters. A chief working group of the CombinedCivil Affairs Committee was its Supply Committee, created in August 1943; aVeterinary Corps officer was detailed to duty with the latter's VeterinaryWorking Party. In those military operations carried on by Army alone, or wherethe Navy or the Allied forces did not participate, the concerned Army theatercommander conducted his own detailed planning and established CA/MG pursuantto policy control by the War Department.
MEDITERRANEAN THEATER
Allied Control Commission (Italy)
The Army Veterinary Servicewith CA/MG in the Mediterranean theater began on 18 August 1943, when one Veterinary Corps officer in the Zoneof interior was selected for such an assignment (4). Soon, following thelatter's arrival and orientation training inNorth Africa at Tizi-Ouzou (on 8 October 1943),he came on duty with Headquarters, ACC(Allied Control Commission), as Chief of Veterinary Section, Public HealthSub-Commission,which was established on 10 November 1943, with initial station at Palermo, Sicily. This headquarters organization, or armisticecontrol group as it was commonly referred to, was ordered into existence by AFHQ(Allied Force Headquarters) which had obtained the Italian armistice and an"instrument of surrender" from the Italian Government on 3 Septemberof that year. It must be recalled that by this date the Allied military forceshad already cleared North Africa, seized Sicily, and were landing at the"toe and heel" of the Italian peninsula. The ACC was constitutedpursuant to the terms of surrender and thus comprised an armistice controlagency over the Italian Government. Armistice control was essentially militarygovernment but was complicated by the continued operations of a nationalgovernment, though it had surrendered, and was further confused when theItalian Government announced its standing as a cobelligerent to the Allied wareffort.
Headquarters, ACC, was oneof two CA/MG organizations in the Mediterranean theater; it was not thefirst, though it was the only one having assigned veterinary personnel to beorganized under control of AFHQ. The latter, it mustbe recalled, was the American-British command whichhad directed the assault landings on North Africa on 8 November 1942. There,
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veterinary CA/MG seemed tohave been unrecognized; in fact, an indeterminable political situation inFrench Morocco and Algeria, and the interposition of the Office ofForeign Relief and Rehabilitation Operations, U.S. Department of State, had nowat the start of the war truly complicated the description of American militaryresponsibility in CA/MG. However, in the planning for Operation HUSKY andfollowing the landings, on 10 July 1943, on Sicily, this responsibility waswithout questionassumed by the 15th Army Group (including the Seventh U.S. Army). This armygroup utilized its own AMGOT (Allied Military Government for Occupied Territory) organization-the first of such organized in theMediterranean theater. Then, with the assault landings which were made on theItalian peninsula in early September 1943, the AMG organization set forth thepattern for military government operations in the combat areas of the fieldarmies (including the Fifth U.S. Army) as they advanced northward throughItaly.
In the CA/MG operation thattook place after the surrender of the Italian Government, the AMG, 15th ArmyGroup, conducted true military government in the combat areas, and, as thearmies advanced, AFHQ transferred these areas to "armistice control"by the new ACC which then restored the administration of the respective areasto the Italian Government. This last action took place rather slowly at firstbecause of early weaknesses in the Italian Government in administering therestored areas or before the Allies had captured Rome (in mid-1944), and, ofcourse, the turnover was dependent on the successes of the campaigns against theGermans until their surrender in northern Italy on 2 May 1945. In Sicily and areas on the Italian mainland, theVeterinary Section, Public Health Sub-Commission, of the ACC, originallyfunctioned to supervise, coordinate, and assist the Italian civil veterinaryservices in their restoration and beginning rehabilitation of the country'sanimal food and livestock industries. Of course, this was secondary to theprimary requirements that the Italian Government must conform to the terms ofits surrender and conduct sanitary controls over its food and livestockindustries as would not jeopardize the health of the Allied armies and theiranimals. These veterinary activities related not only to the areas which wereunder jurisdiction of the ACC but also to a degree in the combat areas whereinAMG had control jurisdiction. The latter had no assigned American veterinaryofficers, but its headquarters was so integrated after the winter of 1943-44with that of the ACC in its new location at Naples, and then in Rome, as topermit the Veterinary Section, Public Health Sub-Commission, to fuction forboth; of course, the duality of veterinary affairs was affirmed later when theACC was assigned technical control over all military government operations.
In those areas restored tothe Italian Government, the ACC veterinary functions were originally one ofsupervisory control; in November 1944, this relationship to the civilianveterinary services was changed. During that month, as the result of continuingprogressive demonstrations by Italy as a
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pro-Ally in the war effort,the armistice control group was renamed AC (Allied Commission) and its functionswere changed to advisement only. Thus, after that time, the Veterinary Section,Public Health Sub-Commission, acted only as adviser to the government inregard to its veterinary matters in the restored Italian areas and providedsuch assistance as was requested. Now, supply for rehabilitating the Italianeconomy became a major AC activity. The cessation of active hostilities (in May1945) led to the early restoration of more areas to the Italian Government sothat by the end of 1945 the latter was controlling all its national territoryexcept in the Trieste area. There, Yugoslavia was questioning an international boundary line.The AC, however, remained operational until its abolishment on 31 January1947, although the Italian surrender terms which had chartered the agency werenot fully terminated until the Allied governments ratified the Italian PeaceTreaty on 15 September 1947.
Headquarters, AC, patternedits functional organization of components after the organization of the ItalianGovernment over which armistice control was being maintained. The VeterinarySection was a part of the Public Health Sub-Commission, and the latter, in turn,was only one of several sub-commissions which was headed by a chief ordirector of the Headquarters' Administrative Section (chart 6). Another chiefor directorate section, the Economic Section, included the Agriculture, Forestsand Fisheries Sub?Commission, but the latter had little if anything to dowith veterinary affairs. The Veterinary Section's officer, as were all U.S. personnel on duty with any CA/MG organizationin the area, was assigned for administrative purposes to the 2675th Regiment(Overhead). After January 1944, the Veterinary Section obtained the employmentof an Italian civilian veterinarian who accomplished much in establishingworking liaison with the Italian veterinary profession.
Civil Veterinary Services inItaly
The functional organizationof Italian veterinary affairs at the national level was centered in the Ministryof the Interior, and within that ministry it was a part of the Public HealthDivision. However, the Ministry of Education regulated the employment of theinstructional staffs in the country's veterinary schools. There were noveterinary personnel with the Ministry of Agriculture, and even at thelower, or provincial and communal, levels of government, the veterinarians hadlittle working relationships with agricultural officials. At these lower levelsof government, veterinary affairs were handled as an entity separatefrom, but coordinate with, public health matters, and the provincialveterinarian-one for eachprovince-regulated or supervised the activities of 20to 50 communal veterinarians. The latter were responsible for the supervisionof slaughterhouses, the control and prevention of animal diseases pursuant tothe provisions of sanitary police laws and regulations, and the conduct ofprivate practice. Of course, the state
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of socialism that hadprevailed throughout Sicily and Italy after 20 years of Mussolini's Fascist rulewas now showing in the veterinary service which was not especially efficient,lacked initiative, and was unaccustomed to hard work; the farmers needed, butcould not obtain, professional veterinary services.
Until after the capture of Rome (in mid-1944), the AMG and ACC more or lessadministered the Italian veterinary services in the provinces of
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Sicily and southern Italy. The original (or Badoglio) Italian governmentwas scarcely more than a name, without archives and complete ministerialstaffs, and it was inevitable that some veterinarians once occupying impor?tantpositions in the Fascist government organization had fled with the enemy, wereremoved by Italian patriot groups, or were necessarily dismissed from theiroffices. The removal of pro-Nazis and Fascists from the Italian Government, was not energetically enforced in Sicily and southern Italy because theAllies did not have the military personnel to conduct local administrationand the Badoglio government had not the political strength to reestablish anadministration with the personnel who were then available. In fact, the ItalianGovernment soon assumed operational control over screening of its personnel.After the capture of Rome, a new chief of Italian Government veterinaryservice was appointed, but even this appointment was made temporary, pendingthe naming of a veterinarian who was politically acceptable.
In Sicily andItaly, animal diseases were controlled,pursuant to national veterinary sanitary police regulations which werepromulgated in 1914 and revised slightly in 1932. As was true in other Europeancountries, regulatory enforcement was actually the responsibility of communalpolice personnel and the local veterinarians who conducted the necessaryprofessionalservices. Many of the factors involved in the breakdown of regulatory controlsduring the period of hostilities manifestly continued into the early part of theoccupation period, so that animal diseases which once seemed to have been wellcontrolled now presented major problems to the Allied occupation forces. As theresult, horses and mules, so urgently needed by the Allied armies and in theAllied programs for restoring the Italian economy, were untested for glanders infear that they would be destroyed; draft animals, infected with equine epizooticlymphangitis, or food animals with brucellosis and tuberculosis, were keptalive, and diseased animals and anthrax-infected cadavers became sources of foodto the human populace. Other factors contributing to the breakdown of animaldisease controls were the shortages in communications and transportationfacilities and of veterinary supplies, the wartime increases in traffic ofanimals, and the war weariness of a socialized people in their destroyedcountry. Under these conditions, and until they could be improved, CA/MGoperations were directed only at the restoration of animal disease controls toprewar levels pursuant to the Italian regulations and past practices. Earlyattempts for improvement (or modernization) of control measures failed assometimes did local governments in complying with direct orders when given byAMG officers. Generally, there was no change or improvement made in any Italianveterinary activity-or at least nothing comparable to that observed in thepostwar occupation of Germany, Japan, and Korea-because the periodduringwhich such could be impressed on the country was relatively brief, and,
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as shown earlier, the Alliedcivilian affairs operations were limited after November 1944 to that of advisingand assisting the Italians.
The existing veterinarysanitary police regulations and disease control practices of the Italianveterinary service were adequate with regard to only a few animal diseases,particularly those which could be regulated by programs of animal immunization.There were, however, a greater number of other diseases-equally serious and alsopossessing a public health threat-against which little or no truly effectivecontrols were established. The first group of animal diseases included anthrax,blackleg, and swine erysipelas; the latter group included brucellosis in sheepand goats, equine glanders, bovine tuberculosis, sheep scabies, and rabies.Anthrax enzootics first occurred in two provinces of Italy in which the provincial officials had delayedthe reinstitution of annually recurrent programs of animal vaccination. Inanother province, including the Cassino battleground, a starving civilianpopulation attempted to recover the carcasses of infected animals for food.Swine erysipelas was controlled by immunization with a "living" nonvirulent vaccine. It may be mentioned that the early action by the AC torehabilitate local Italian Government veterinary laboratories made possible thestart of these annual or seasonal programs for animal disease control;frequently, military courier service was made available for delivering therequired veterinary supplies in the provinces. Brucellosis of sheep and goatswas differentiated from bovine brucellosis by the Italian veterinary service tothe extent that the latter was generally disregarded, even after the ACveterinary officer had introduced a vaccinal agent that was being successfullyused to control this disease in the dairy industry of the United States. Ovine brucellosis, on the otherhand, was granted more consideration, and a locally developed diagnostic testagent (Mirri's brucellin) was used to segregate "nonreactors" frominfected milking goats, whose output was required to be pasteurized, or thegoats destroyed.
Summarizing, the veterinaryservice in postwar Italy successfully accomplished a restoration of severalanimal disease control programs at the level of their prewar standards. However,it manifested no immediate interest in the establishment of more moderncontrols that would eradicate or completely remove these diseases which wouldcontinually threaten the Italian agricultural economy and public health formany more years.
Animals were tested forglanders, but routinely only those showing clinical signs or symptoms of thedisease were destroyed; the "reactor" animals were placed in a sort ofworking quarantine. This kind of control was not effective as a test-and-eradication programbut seemed to have comprised the only practical procedure in postwar Italy wherethe high price and the lack of transport facilities placed each horse and mulebeyond any value of animal disease control. Bovine tuberculosis-like brucellosis-was quite prevalent, probably involving 50 to 80 percent of Italy's dairycows. Only in northern Italy was there any organized program underway for itscontrol
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-the program including thesegregation of uninfested animals from "reactors" that were shown bysubcutaneous tuberculin test to be infected, the vaccination of young cattlewith Calmette Gu?rin vaccine (which possessed a questionable protective value),and the addition of known tuberculosis-free cattle into existent dairy herds.Sheep scabies came into prevalence when the country's supply of nicotine sulfatewas disrupted, and farmers could ill afford the high expense of buying thisantiscabies dip product in an illicit market. As a substitute, the Americantechnique with lime-sulfur dipping solution was demonstrated and successfullyintroduced as a means of effectively controlling sheep scabies. Rabies, thelast of the diseases to be briefly noted here, became enzootic in parts ofItaly; in Rome, alone, 400 suspect cases and 58 laboratory-confirmed cases indogs were reported in the 12-month period ending June 1945, and 2,000 civilianswere treated for dogbite wounds. Military government proclamations were issuedfor impounding stray dogs, and owners were ordered to muzzle or restraintheir dogs by leash. Antirabic vaccine was unavailable at the time, but theprocedures which were set forth in the proclamations were sufficiently enforcedas to effectively stop the enzootic.
In addition to the foregoingdiseases, there were others which, once well regulated or controlled, nowreappeared in virulent form among the Italian animal population. Thereinstitution of controls was made difficult because of the untimely appearancesof these diseases, when communications and transport facilities had beendisrupted; furthermore, the local veterinary service was generally unacquaintedwith the specific diseases or unprepared for organizing effective programs.These diseases included dourine, equine epizootic lymphangitis, hog cholera,Newcastle disease (of poultry), piroplasmosis, and bovine trichomoniasis.Actually, some few diseases such as sheep scab and rabies-previouslydescribed-may be included in this group.
Dourine, the syphilislikedisease of the horse, was first observed in May 1945 among captured Germanarmy horses, but steps were taken early to control rather than to eradicatethe disease, which involved the institution of quarantine and treatment for theinfected.
Equine epizooticlymphangitis was handled in much the same manner. However, the diseasebecame so commonplace in the Naples area as to require AMG to intervenewith regulatory prohibition against the public appearance of diseased animals.
Foot-and-mouth disease (alsocalled aphthous fever), originally reported during May 1944 among dairy herdsand a sheep flock in three widely separated places (Taranto, Foggia, andSalerno), gradually spread over an area of 15,000 square miles within fourmonths (fig. 44). This epizootic spread continued intothe Siena province, by February1945, and then by August 1945, into the Perugia, Rieti, and Terni Provinces. The onlyproduction laboratory for Waldmann-type vaccine, which wasused in Italy, was not uncovered and did not become operational until September1944;
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FIGURE 44.-Ulcerous lesionsof foot-and-mouth disease (Rome, April 1945).
but from that time untilAugust 1945, vaccine to immunize 140,000 animals was produced there. The samevaccine was also used to protect animals in Sardinia. However, even though theanimals there failed to show immunity, no earnest studies were made to confirman Italian postulation that the A?strain virus of foot-and-mouth disease wasinvolved, whereas the Italian vaccine was protective only against the O-strainvirus. The immunization program was necessarily restricted-due to the limitedquantity of vaccine available-to work cattle and dairy herds. Among these herds,the disease mortality rates in the cows and young animals averaged 7 percent and25 percent, respectively; the abortion rates of pregnant cows approximated 100percent, and the milk production was reduced by 70 percent for periods up to amonth. Beef cattle, other than breeding stock, received little attentionbecause the meat of the infected and dying (or dead) animals was entered intoregular trade channels.
Hog cholera-once considerednonexistent in Italy-appeared invirulent epizootic form, first in the Foggiaarea during April 1944 and then throughout liberated or occupied Italy. In theinstance of establishing con-
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trols over this disease, theItalian veterinary service accepted the suggestions given by the AC veterirnary officer that anti-hog-cholera serum ofU. S. origin be imported atonce for immediate local use and that the American-developed Boynton crystalviolet product be studied for production and distribution by Italian veterinarylaboratories for use throughout the Italian swine industry. The results weresuccessful; approximately a half million swine were vaccinated during the12-month period ending June 1945.
Newcastle disease of poultry-like hogcholera-was regarded asnonexistent in Italy or as anatypical laryngotracheitis; however, confirmatory studies were made ofspecimens submitted to the laboratory of the Army Veterinary School, ArmyMedical Center, Washington, D.C. In the control of this disease, which wascausing heavy losses in the Italian poultry industry (a mortality of 50 to100 percent in infected flocks), the Italian veterinarians administered alocally produced vaccine which conferred short?period immunization.
The tick-transmittedpiroplasmosis was a common summertime disease among cattle in Sardinia and inthe southern and central Italian provinces. Rather than the organization ofprograms for its prevention, such as are known to be effective, the Italianveterinary service preferred to treat the infected animals. The German-madeAcaprin or English Pireven was administered intramuscularly (in a single 6-cc.dose) to infected animals with almost spectacular success.
In regard to the meat anddairy industries, the Italian veterinarian exercised little or no sanitarycontrol over production. Of course, in the situation of food shortages thatexisted in occupied Italy during the war, animals frequently were notslaughtered in the abattoirs, neither was the meat entered into regular marketchannels. A great many abattoirs were scattered throughout the country,usually inadequate in their facilities, and the ante mortem and post morteminspections, when they were conducted, were performed by random selection oforgans from various animals for inspection and with no examination of lymphglands. On the other hand, each Italian abattoir was required to operate under veterinary supervision. In the coastal cities, the Italian veterinarianalso inspected the fish which were landed, but their standards were not thesame as those commonly observed in the American fishing industry. The dairyindustry was completely outside the sphere of veterinary activities except forthe control of diseases among the dairy herds; in Palermo and in the Italianmetropolitan cities, such as Rome and Naples, milk control was invested withnon-public health personnel and politicians, but there was no sanitarycontrol. Raw milk, with contaminants of manure and flies clearly visible, wasreceived at the dairies and treated with hydrogen peroxide in lieu ofpasteurization. It was bottled or otherwise handled in equipment which hadbeen washed in cold water. In one city, AMG employed a milk specialist andprovided such material as was needed to properly operate the local dairy.
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The Italian veterinarybiologic-producing laboratories were the focal point for the animal diseasecontrol programs which were evolved in occupied and postwar Italy (fig. 45).There were 11 government-owned laboratories and 3 privately owned; all sufferedsome war damage, but energetic action was taken for their early rehabilitation.This feature of CA/MG operations probably originated in November 1943 when theveterinary laboratory at Palermo was employed in the manufacture of smallpoxvaccine for human use in controlling an epidemic of this disease that occurred inNaples; by August 1945, smallpox vaccine production in Italian veterinarylaboratories had totaled 10 million doses.
Aside from the supply ofveterinary biologicals mostly from indigenous sources, veterinary medicines andequipment were urgently needed. In Sicily and southern Italy, the problem waslargely one of locating existing stockpiles and arranging for theirdistribution, but, as the more populous and better agricultural areas werereached, the supply needs had to be satisfied by importations. AnAmerican-British Combined Chiefs of Staff supply committee, in Washington, D.C.,had previously planned for this
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supply, and eventually someshipments of so-called Civil Affairs Division supplies arrived. Unfortunately, the delivery of the first shipmentwas generallyunsuccessful because the material was not specifically marked for veterinaryuse, was proselyted into regular medical supplies which were being received inquantities below requirements of Italian medical needs, and included itemswhich the Italian veterinarians had little or no use for because of normalvariations from American methods of veterinary practice. Following theirarrival in Italy, these veterinary supplies were assigned to the ItalianGovernment veterinary laboratories for distribution because thisaction assured their proper receipt and improved the chances for their reachingthe Italian veterinarian in regular civilian trade channels.
Other Civil Affairs andMilitary Government Operations of Allied Force Headquarters
The same Allied militaryheadquarters that organized the CA/MG operations in Italy also becameinvolved in the planning for Albania, Greece, and Yugoslavia, and participatedwith SHAEF (Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Forces) in theEuropean theater on matters relating to southern France and Austria. In Albania,Greece, and Yugoslavia, the Allied military forces, which were principallyBritish, only entered after the Germans had vacated, and AFHQ, through anewly organized AMG (Balkans), operated as an interim agency to provideemergency relief supplies until the UNRRA (United Nations Relief andRehabilitation Administration) could assume the supply responsibility. NoVeterinary Corps personnel were assigned, although during the period of militaryresponsibility some few veterinary supplies and equipment of U.S. origin areknown to have been made available for distribution in the three countries. Theforegoing situation was equally applicable to CA/MG veterinary activities insouthern France which was invaded by the Seventh U.S. Army in mid-August1944. Planning for Operation ANVIL-DRAGOON, which was the invasion of southernFrance, was conducted by AFHQ within the overall policy described by SHAEF;the latter, on 1 November 1944, took over operational control of the militaryforces in that area from the Allied headquarters of the Mediterranean theater.In the military occupation of Austria, American troop units and personnel of theMediterranean theater were originally planned for, but when the Third andSeventh U.S. Armies swept through Germany and entered Austria (in the last weekof April 1945) the original planning was changed. In fact, as will be observedlater, the U.S. military forces in Austria were now created as asemi-independent command within the European theater, but matters relating tooccupation and administration of the Austrian civil government were separatelyreported to the Joint Army and Navy Chiefs of Staff in Washington, D.C.
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EUROPEAN THEATER
General Military Governmentin Germany
Months before the surrenderof Germany, the U.S. forces in the European theater were preparing foroccupation tasks (5). Specific planning for the occupation began in the springof 1943, when the Allied governments decided on the launching of across-Channel invasion in early summer of 1944 (Operation OVERLORD). Thisdecision led to the creation of the strategic planning agency, COSSAC (Chief ofStaff, Supreme Allied Command). A Posthostilities Planning Section of COSSAC wasdesignated to consider the responsibilities of the commander in chief afterthe close of combat. A G-5 staff division was also created in COSSAC to handlemilitary government matters. At the intergovernmental level, EAC (EuropeanAdvisory Commission), consisting of the foreign ministers of the United States,Great Britain, and the Soviet Union, was organized to make recommendations tothe member governments on terms of surrender and occupation matters. The EACprepared a draft of surrender terms, an agreement on control machinery forGermany, and an agreement on zones of occupation. In January 1944, COSSAC wasabsorbed into the newly organized SHEAF, and General Dwight D. Eisenhower waschosen as Supreme Commander. The G-5 division was continued in SHEAF and was thehub of all military government planning for Germany.
A German County Unit wasformed in March 1944 and prepared a Handbook for Military Government in Germanywhich became a basic guide for early occupation. In the summer of 1944, theGerman Country Unit was absorbed into the USGCC (U.S. Group Control Council)-anew planning agency created to prepare for the American component of a futureAllied Control Group for Germany. (The Allied Control Council was approved atthe Yalta Conference in February 1945 and activated in June 1945.) OperationECLIPSE was formulated as the plan to be put into effect as areas of Germanywere uncovered and at the final surrender. The plan dealt with such matters asterms of surrender, the application of sanctions, the disarmament anddisbandment of the German armed forces, the disarmament and control ofparamilitary organizations, the safeguarding and disposal of captured enemymaterial, the trial of war criminals, the control of transportation andcommunications, the disarming and control of police, the establishment of lawand order, the control of governments and military organizations, theinstitution of military government, the execution of intelligence functions,the control of public information media, the care of displaced persons, and therepatriation of Allied prisoners of war.
While planning foroccupation was in progress, experience in military government operations wasbeing gained during combat in Germany. The
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MAP 10.-Occupiedareas of Germany and Austria.
German frontier wascrossed on 11 September 1944, and, by mid-December, elements of the First,Seventh, and Ninth U.S. Armies were holding a narrow strip along the westernborder. Then, after a temporary setback in mid-December 1944 by the Germancounteroffensive in the Ardennes, the Allies pushed across Germany until shesurrendered on 8 May 1945. American forces were scattered over Germany,Austria, and Czechoslovakia but
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were soon deployed to theU.S. Zone of Occupation (map 10). All types of CA/MG functions were inoperation during combat.
As hostilities on theEuropean Continent drew to a close, arrangements were made to separate thecombined headquarters of SHAEF and prepare for unilateral zone command. SHAEFwas dissolved on 14 July 1945, and American combat troops were placed underoperational control of USFET (U.S. Forces, European Theater). All but the Thirdand Seventh U.S. Armies were redeployed or made nonoperational. The Third U.S.Army was assigned jurisdiction of the eastern part of the U.S. Zone ofOccupation and the Seventh U.S. Army the western part. The Seventh U.S. Army wasinactivated in March 1946 and the Third U.S. Army in March 1947. After thistime, the American forces designated to preserve order were the U.S.Constabulary.
In accord with the YaltaAgreement, the ACA (Allied Control Authority) was established in June 1945;its executive organ was the ACC (Allied Control Council), made up of thecommanders of the four occupying military forces who first met on 30 July 1945. The original U.S. element of ACA was the USGCC, later (on 1 October 1945)redesignated as OMGUS (Office of Military Government, United States).The ACC formed directorates covering broad areas of civilian activity(such as Directorate of Economies). Functioning under the directorates weremany technical committees and working groups. Such committees covered everyimportant area of German civilian matters. The general policy of ACA was to consider those matters that hadapplication throughout the country as a whole or which had internationalaspects. When a decisionfor action was reached by the ACA, unilateral action was then taken by each ofthe powers in its zone. In the U.S. Zone, this action was assumed by the Assistant Chief ofStaff, G-5, USFET.
By 1 January 1946, militarygovernment activities were generally centralized and removed from theoccupational activities. Offices of Military Government were created toadminister all military government in three military government areas: Bavaria,W?rttemberg-Baden, and Greater Hesse into which the U.S. Zone had now beendivided, and in the Bremen Enclave and the U.S. Sector of Berlin (map 10).
Since V-E Day and before theadvent of the top-level administrative agencies, military government controlwas carried on at Kreis (county), Regierungsbezirke (district), and Land(province) levels by military government detachments which-though operating under the generalsupervision of ECAD (European CivilAffairs Division) of SHAEF-wereattached to tactical divisions. As there wasno central German Government left to do the task, the main functions of thesedetachments were to restore local German governments and to aid them inreviving their general utility and other municipal services. The Germans werevery energetic so that the more urgent rehabilitation was accomplished withremarkable speed. As the occupation proceeded, control by militarygovernment detachments was increas-
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ingly shifted to higherlevels of German government, and the type of control was moved from specificmatters to broad guidance.1
Civil Affairs and MilitaryGovernment During Combat
Since Germany had overrunall of Western Europe, the Allies were obligated to pay attention to civilmatters in these countries during the combat and immediate postcombat phases.Skeleton governments-in-exile for France, Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg, Denmark,Norway, Poland, and Czechoslovakia had been formed in England between 1940 and1944. SHAEF now created military missions for these governments, each comprisedof approximately equal members of British and American military personnel. Themissions were organized into sections corresponding to the ministerialelements of the country concerned; they studied the countries and maintainedliaison with the governments-in-exile to obtain military intelligence on theconditions under Nazi domination. A Civil Affairs Handbook also was preparedfor use of the Allied military forces during the period of administrationimmediately following liberation of each country. Then, after the Allies invadedthe European Continent and pushed eastward into Germany, control by each SHAEFmission was turned over to the respective governments as soon as the country was liberated. All of the missions functioned very effectively bothbefore and after liberation of the countries they represented.
Veterinary civil affairs andmilitary government personnel.-Planning for veterinaryCA/MG in the Europeantheater started when six specially trained Veterinary Corps officers from theZone of Interior arrived in England early in 1944 for assignmentto CA/MG duties (6). The senior officer of this group was assigned to SHAEF G-5 and for theduration of the war was the nominal chief of veterinary CA/MG activities in theEuropean theater. The remaining five officers were assigned to various SHAEFmilitary missions. Initially, requisitions had been made for 15 veterinaryofficers for assignment to CA/MG duties at SHAEF, each SHAEF mission, theGerman Country Unit, ETOUSA Headquarters, Communications Zone Headquarters,UNRRA, 12th Army Group, the field armies, the Army Air ForcesHeadquarters, and ECAD. Requisitions for these officers, however, werenot filled. AfterD-day, when the field forces requested assistance of CA/MG veterinarians, fourof the officers originally assigned to the SHAEF
1With the increasingfriendliness of the Western Powers toward Germany and the increasinganimosity from the Soviets, the former took steps to free their militaryoccupational forces from civil responsibilities and to concentrate on defenseagainst the Soviet threat. The Occupation Statute was promulgated on 21September 1949, by the Western Occupying Powers as a substitute for the earlierGerman surrender terms and other Allied policies that were made in 1945. TheStatute led to the creation of the German Federal Republic, encompassing thethree western zones of occupation, but excluding Berlin. It granted to this areaof Germany all governmental powers but reserved the right to maintain Alliedtroops there for defense purposes. On this same date (21 September 1949) theOffice of HICOG (U.S. High Commissioner for Germany) was created under the U.S.State Department, and OMGUS was inactivated, with its civil affairs mattersbeing transferred to HICOG. Thus ended military government of Germany in WorldWar II.-E.B.M.
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missions were transferred tothe field forces. As a result of this redistribution of veterinary officersduring the combat period, the single SHAEF?assigned officer had to assume fullresponsibility for giving whatever advisory services he could to the variousorganizations in that area.
While the foregoing officershad been oriented in general military government affairs, they had almost noinformation on European veterinary activities at the time of their arrival inEngland. Therefore, they took steps to gain such information by reading librarymaterial, by talking to English veterinarians, by visiting English veterinaryinstallations (which were fairly representative of continental places), and bytalking with exiled European veterinarians. These officers also underwent theminimum general combat training required for all CA/MG personnel.
Veterinary CA/MGoperations will be described hereafter from theviewpoint of the organizations to which the officers were assigned. The officerassigned to SHAEF, G-5 Division, directed the technical activities of allveterinary military government officers in the theater. In addition, liaisonwas maintained with other SHAEF organizations, with the U.S. embassies ofAllied countries, with Headquarters, ETOUSA, with Communications Zone,with the three army groups (U.S. 6th, U.S. 12th, and British 21st), with thefour U.S. field armies (First, Third, Seventh, and Ninth), with the U.S. ArmyAir Forces (8th and 9th), and with UNRRA. After arrival on the Continent, thechief military government veterinary officer established contact with theveterinary officials of Allied countries and gave needed assistance and advice.
Because of the limitednumbers of personnel available, veterinary officers were assigned only to theSHAEF military missions for France, Belgium, and Holland, and the German CountryUnit during the pre-D-day period in England. These officers made plans foradministering the civilian veterinary service in the respective countries upontheir liberation. Such plans were prepared in the form of civil affairshandbooks. Because of the change of personnel assignments noted above, onlythe Holland Mission retained its veterinary officer. Holland remained partlyoccupied by the Germans until almost the end of combat so that therewere more serious problems from the lack of a national government. France andBelgium were quickly liberated, and the native governments soon assumedtheir own administration. The officer assigned to the Holland Mission carriedout operations as planned, restoring local veterinary administration,reestablishing temporary national administration, animal disease control,food inspection services, and obtaining emergency veterinary supplies.
The veterinary CA/MGofficers helped with the planning while they were in England and assisted indetermining requirements and in distributing of veterinary supplies afterthey arrived on the Continent. Belgium and Holland used more of the suppliesthan the other countries of northwest Europe. Stocks of captured German armyveterinary supplies were
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frequently turned over to CA/MG for distribution to Alliedand German civilian veterinary service. Closeliaison was maintained with UNRRA before and after the invasion tocoordinate supplies.
Experiences in combatunits.-The single veterinary officer assigned to CA/MG duties with theCommunications Zone coordinated various veterinary CA/MG activities inthat area. In the conduct of his mission,he was assisted by the Zone's basesection-assigned veterinary personnel who reported outbreaks of animaldisease, sources of veterinary supplies, and gathered information about civilianveterinary officials. The Army Air Forces veterinarians also were helpful inCA/MG liaison. When the foregoing veterinary CA/MG officer was transferred toHeadquarters, 12th Army Group, he directed his efforts toward coordinating theoperations of the three veterinary CA/MG officers who were assigned to thefield armies of that army group (namely, the First, Third, and Ninth U.S.Armies). He also conducted many field investigations to augment Army personnel.
Those officers assigned tothe field armies were in the most forward areas. One of their primary functionswas intelligence because they had first contact with the civilian veterinaryservice, both in Allied countries and in Germany. Information on all aspects ofveterinary functions thus obtained was passed to the next higher echelons. Someinformation, such as presence of animal diseases, was passed to adjacent armiesto assist in control measures. The kinds of activities covered every type ofCA/MG functions. During the lull along the German border in late 1944, it waspossible to complete some operations, but then, in the spring of 1945, whenthe armies advanced so rapidly, their activities were mostly that of gainingmilitary intelligence. A typical activity of each major function will be citedas an example.
Intelligence.-In the FirstU.S. Army area, the veterinary officer obtained a Directory of GermanVeterinarians published in 1939. This gave also the administrativeorganization of all levels from Reich down to the Kreis, a description ofveterinary colleges, listing of veterinary laboratories, livestock censusdata, military veterinary service, manufacturers of veterinary supplies, and soforth. While some changes had taken place in 5 years, most of the data werestill valid. This booklet was soon obtained by the other veterinary officersand served as an important guide for operations in Germany.
Local veterinaryadministration.-During the German Ardennescounteroffensive, the veterinaryadministration of Luxembourg collapsed. Veterinarians sympathetic with theGermans had gone over to Germany, while those who opposed the Germans had fledto Brussels. Foot-and-mouth disease was present in the area and it was imperativethat control measures be reestablished. The veterinary military governmentofficer with the Third U.S. Army traveled to Brussels, located five refugeeveterinarians, and assisted them to return to Luxembourg to control theoutbreak.
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Disease control.-On 26October 1944, an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease was reported on theHolland-German border north of Aachen, then in the combat area of the First U.S.Army. The latter's veterinary CA/MG officer investigated and verified thereport. One complication of control was that the site of the outbreak was justbehind the front line. German minefields had not been cleared. Many animalswere loose. The SHAEF veterinary officer went to the area to directoperations. He first contacted the Holland district veterinarian who,fortunately, was still on the job. Working together, and mindful of combatdangers, they planned and executed the following operations: All Dutch andGerman veterinarians in the vicinity were assembled with the aid of militarycommanders and local burgermeisters and directed to evacuate the cattlewestward into Holland. Upon arrival at the border, veterinary examinations fordisease were made. Diseased animals were destroyed, whereas the remainder weregrouped into those suitable for breeding and milking and those suitable forslaughter to feed the civilian population. The breeding and milking animals werekept under observation of Dutch veterinarians who conducted the usual measuresfor handling communicable diseases. Extensive spread of disease was prevented,and valuable food resources were preserved.
Food inspection.-Slaughterhouses and milk plants frequently showed serious war damagebecause of their location near railroad yards. Veterinary CA/MG officersassisted in rehabilitating these establishments by supporting actions for therelease of needed repair materiel and labor, by contacting local veterinary meatand milk inspectors, and by liaison with other CA/MG officers.
Animal husbandry.-Theveterinary CA/MG officers actively cooperated with food and agriculture CA/MGofficers in reassembling livestock, controlling the hygiene of livestocksales, reestablishing normal veterinary practice, and advising on hygienicaspects of animal foods and animal breeding problems.
Indigenous veterinarysupplies.-During the foot-and-mouth disease outbreak in the Luxembourg area, aspreviously noted, the local supply of the specific vaccinal agent used incontrolling the disease was soon exhausted. This was reported to the SHAEF G-5veterinary officer who learned that the nearest source of vaccine was aveterinary laboratory in Switzerland. After clearances were obtained frommilitary and civilian officials, the veterinary CA/MG officer with the ThirdU.S. Army and a Luxembourg veterinarian traveled to the laboratory in a truckand returned with a new supply of vaccine.
Veterinary education.-Thefirst German veterinary college was visited by the veterinary militarygovernment officer, Ninth U.S. Army, at Hannover a few days after the city wascaptured. While the school was badly damaged and classes were not in session, itwas found that animal clinics could be operated for treatment of communityanimals and laboratories could
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be used for diseasediagnosis and vaccine production. Authority was obtained through CA/MG tocontinue these types of services.
International Institute ofEpizootics.-Mentionalso must be made of the International Institute of Epizootics. Thisorganization, located in Paris, France, was created in 1927 to collect anddisseminate information on animal diseases throughout the world. During the Nazioccupation of France, it had continued to operate on a restricted scale. Soonafter Paris was liberated, the SHAEF G-5 veterinary officer visited theInstitute and learned that it was prepared to operate on prewar level. Prior toD-day, UNRRA had proposed the organization of a veterinary group in Europe toaid in the rehabilitation of veterinary services, especially animal diseasecontrol. When the Institute was found to be intact, it was supported by bothUNRRA and SHAEF in the continuance of its mission. After the start of occupationof Germany, the chief veterinary CA/MG officer, now assigned to OMGUS,continued to assist the Institute by forwarding German animal disease data.
Civil Affairs and MilitaryGovernment During Occupation
Upon the collapse ofGermany, steps were taken to acquire additional Army veterinary officers for CA/MG. Several officers were reassigned from combat units, from supply units,from the Mediterranean theater, and from the Zone of Interior. Each new officerwas given a briefing and a short on-the-job training before taking over his newduties. A total of 31 officers and 1 civilian veterinary consultant from theUnited States were assigned to military government in ETOUSA. The peak strengthwas reached in October 1945 when personnel were distributed from the ACA downto the Regierungsbezirke level (charts 7 and 8). Late in 1945, it becameobvious that the German veterinary administration would and could carry out thewishes of CA/MG. Thus, a phase-out of veterinary officers-as well as otherCA/MG personnel-was instituted over the next few months, starting withreductions from the lower echelons. By June 1946, only three officers remained-twoassigned to OMGUS in Berlin and one at the Behringwerk plant. By November1947, only the senior veterinary CA/MG officer remained. He stayed on untilJuly 1947 when plans for transfer of OMGUS to HICOG were finalized.
Due to the limited numbersof available veterinary CA/MG officers and to the rapid reestablishment of thecivilian veterinary service, the functions of the veterinary CA/MG officers soonbecame essentially liaison between the German veterinary service and CA/MG.Almost all civilian veterinary functions were desirable, so that the liaisonwas directed toward rehabilitation rather than revision of them. The officerswere assigned as individual specialists in field operations and functionedusually under the public health CA/MG officer. Much liaison was, of course,maintained with other CA/MG officers, especially food and agriculture,education, and general administration. Direct
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technical contact betweenveterinary CA/MG officers at various echelons was encouraged and freely used.Reports on the veterinary activities were prepared in all organizations whereveterinary personnel were assigned. These were forwarded through CA/MG channelsto OMGUS, where summary reports were prepared for publication.
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Allied Control Authority.-Mention has previously been made of theCA/MG policy for occupiedterritory to maintain the structure of government as little changed aspossible. While the national veterinary administration ceased functioning atsurrender, two of its technical organizations were permitted to continue: TheReichsgesundheitsant (National Health Institute) in Berlin, and the PaulEhrlich Institut in Frankfurt am Main used for standardization of biologicals.
In lieu of the nationalveterinary service there was set up a veterinary group in ACA. This group,called the Veterinary Subcommittee, was originally activated under the PublicHealth and Welfare Committee of the Directorate of Internal Affairs andCommunications, first meeting in session on 17 December 1945. Later (or inFebruary 1946), because so much of the early rehabilitation dealt withagricultural matters, the Subcommittee was transferred to the Food andAgriculture Committee of the Directorate of Economies. Such arrangementcontinued until the dissolution of the Subcommittee in 1948. Regular meetingswere held, monthly and special meetings as required. The Subcommittee wascomposed of the chief veterinary CA/MG officer of each of the four Alliedzones; alternate members sat in the absence of the regular member. Thechairmanship was rotated monthly among the delegates, and each delegate had asecretary, interpreters, and advisers, as required. Terms of reference foroperation of the Subcommittee were prepared and amended from time to time. Whilemost of the activities were conducted in Berlin, the members occasionally madetrips into the field to observe operations at first hand. Activities of theSubcommittee involved all aspects of the German veterinary service; thefollowing are cited as examples:
1. Preparation of specialveterinary health certificate for interzonal movement of livestock.
2. Preparation of adictionary of animal diseases in Latin, English, French, Russian, and German.
3. Collection andconsolidation of animal disease statistics.
4. Promoting standardization ofveterinary biologicals.
5. Survey of needs,current availability, and production facilities for veterinary supplies (drugs,instruments, biologicals, and so forth).
6. Survey of Germanveterinary laws to check influence of Nazism.
7. Survey of bovine tuberculosisand control measures.
8. Survey of brucellosis andcontrol measures.
While it was never possibleduring the military government phase to set up a central veterinary service, theSubcommittee helped to point the way. For example, it arranged for centralmeetings in Berlin of the chief civil veterinary officials of the four zones. These meetings started in October 1947 and continued until the breakup ofquadripartite control in 1948. When Bizonia was formed, it included a Germanveterinary official who coordinated veterinary activities in the U.S. andBritish zones.
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German Veterinary ServiceBefore Surrender
Before the war, Germany hadone of the outstanding veterinary services of the world. The administrativeorganization was very complete, with official offices at Reich, Land,Regierungsbezirke, and Kreis levels. Before 1934 the national veterinary officewas in the Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, and Forests, but in 1934, this officewas moved to the Ministry of Interior and designated as Department III. Then, inearly 1945, a governmental reorganization saw the veterinary, public health,and public welfare services grouped under a State Secretary in the Ministry ofthe Interior; however, this organization had little time to function before thecollapse of Germany. There were eight sections in the Reich veterinary office,covering major functions. The provincial veterinary office was also located inthe Province Ministry of Interior. The Regierungsbezirke veterinary officialworked directly under the principal administrator. At the Kreis level, theofficial veterinarian was called the Kreistierarzt or Veterin?rrat. There wasusually one official to a Kreis, but larger Kreise sometimes had two or more,and, infrequently, only one would cover two or more Kreise. The Kreisofficial was the mainstay of the veterinary service since he was responsible forthe execution of all major functions.
General veterinary laws weremade by the Reichschancelor, and executive regulations were prepared by theMinister of the Interior's Veterinary Department. Lower echelons were notpermitted to deviate from the national laws and regulations, except in specialcircumstances.
As in other countries, thetwo major activities of the veterinary service dealt with animal health and foodhygiene. The former was mainly economic since it dealt with the preservation oflivestock resources through animal disease control and related animal health andwelfare matters. The latter was mainly human health since it dealt with meat andmilk hygiene as related to human food. The two areas frequently overlapped. Theprincipal functions of the German veterinary service, as specified in theReich laws, dealt with official administration; animal disease control;veterinary police at border stations; veterinary aspects of animal husbandry;administration of animal indemnity funds; knackery service (carcass disposal);animal slaughter and meat inspection; milk hygiene; hygiene of other foods;animal protective service (human matters); examination and appointment ofpublic veterinary officials; examination and licensing of veterinarypractitioners;administration of the veterinary professional association; veterinary education;supervision of horseshoeing; operation of provincial veterinary laboratories;operation of special laboratories for research, vaccine production, and soforth; administration of the veterinary drug dispensing laws; and collecting,evaluating, and reporting of veterinary statistics. Some of the more importantof these functions will be discussed in the next topic, together with theirrelation to CA/MG operations.
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German Veterinary ServiceDuring Occupation
In accord with general CA/MG policy, the German veterinaryadministration was continued atProvince, Regierungsbezirke, and Kreis levels. If the presurrender official waspresent, he was continued in office; otherwise, the best available substitutewas designated. A serious barrier in obtaining officials was the denazificationprogram. At first, the very strict interpretation of Nazi party affiliationcaused great difficulty in obtaining cleared personnel because nearly allgovernmental officials at all levels had been required to join the party by1939. Later, ACA made a distinction between simple membership and extensiveactivity in the party. This permitted most veterinary officials to occupyoffices. The denazification program did not affect practitioners very much. AllReich veterinary laws were continued as far as practicable in each zone. In theU.S. zone, the officials were very energetic and cooperative in getting theveterinary service reestablished.
It is not practicable todiscuss all of the activities of the German veterinary service during theoccupation. The following have been selected as the more important and typicalones.
Veterinary personnel.-Therewere some 7,600 civilian veterinarians in Germany before the war, employed asfollows:
Veterinary practice | 4,600 |
Meat inspection | 1,040 |
Public officials | 960 |
Retired and miscellaneous | 570 |
Laboratory and research | 290 |
Education | 140 |
| Total | 7,600 |
These numbers were reduced somewhat during the war due to combat casualties and to smaller output of the colleges. In late 1945, the ACA made an agreement in which some 6? million persons of German blood would be transferred from Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland into the four zones of occupied Germany. Some of these people were veterinarians; thus, there was no shortage of veterinary personnel during occupation.
The public service operatedthrough a well-organized civil-service system. Before approval for a regularposition, the applicant must have graduated from a veterinary college, must havebeen in general practice for several months, and must have been an assistant inpublic veterinary service for at least 2 years. Before receiving a license topractice, the graduate must have spent at least 3 months in slaughterhouseinspection and 3 months as an assistant to a practitioner. Licenses were validthroughout Germany.
All veterinarians wererequired by law to belong to the national veterinary chamber (or union). Therewere 16 regional chambers and 57 district chambers. The functions of theseincluded investigating legal liability cases, advising on veterinary education,operating courts for alleged veterinary mal-
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practice, administeringwelfare funds and health insurance for veterinarians and their families, andallocating practice areas. During the occupation, all chambers except that atthe national level were kept in operation. Only rarely did their activitiesconflict with CA/MG policies and practices.
Animal disease control.-Animal disease control was based on the Reich animal disease law of 26June 1909, and amendments. This law covered the usual control measures such asdiagnosis; reporting of animal diseases; quarantine; destruction of infectedanimals; indemnity payments; hygienic disposal of animal products such asmeat, milk, and hides; vaccination; hygiene of animal shipments; hygiene ofanimal markets; and disinfection of premises. At the time of the Germancollapse, there were interruptions in the normal disease control measures due tolack of a national government, lack of communications, lack of supplies, anddisplacement of officials. Before long, however, fairly normal measures were ineffect.
Many reports and recordswere used by the Germans in disease control work. All those originating belownational level were continued in the occupation. The only one required to besubmitted to ACA was the semimonthly communicable disease report. This had beenformerly submitted directly to the Reich veterinary office from each Kreisveterinarian. Procedure was now altered to have the Kreis report sent to theRegierungsbezirke veterinarian who prepared a consolidated report. This reportwas then sent to the Province (Land) veterinarian who transmitted it to theZone veterinary CA/MG officer. The ACA Veterinary Subcommittee received the Zonereports and prepared a grand summary report somewhat like the former Reichreport. The ACA report was sent back to Land veterinarians, to the InternationalEpizootics Institute in Paris, and to the chief veterinary officials of theEuropean countries.
The veterinary border policecontinued their duties as well as possible, carrying out the former laws. Therewere great difficulties in view of the free movements of military organizationsand materiel and large movements of displaced persons.
While some animal diseaseshad increased during the war, the quick reestablishment of the German veterinaryservice after V-E Day brought them under reasonable control. Anthrax appeared inisolated cases but caused no serious problem. Brucellosis of cattle continued tobe an endemic disease. Through the efforts of OMGUS, in cooperation with theU.S. Department of Agriculture, the newly developed strain-19 brucella vaccinewas made available to the Germans. This enabled them to start a long-rangecontrol program. Dourine and glanders of horses were introduced late in the war,when German army horses and captured animals were brought from areas in NorthAfrica, Italy, Poland, and the Balkans. Upon the collapse of Germany, theseanimals were demobilized and distributed to the civilians. A vigorous testingand examination program prevented spread of the diseases and finally resulted intheir eradication. Infectious anemia of horses per-
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sisted throughout theoccupation despite control efforts. Swine erysipelas increased greatly in thesummer of 1945 because combat conditions had prevented the conduct of therecurring spring vaccination program. Through the direct assistance ofveterinary military government officers, vaccine and sera were obtained earlyafter V-E Day and greatly assisted in bringing this disease under control. In1947, an infectious anemia outbreak among the Behringwerke horses caused atemporary loss in the principal source of erysipelas serum. Foot-and-mouthdisease continued to plague all of Europe after the war. Intensive controlmeasures by the Germans and CA/MG veterinarians kept reducing the disease, butsmall outbreaks occurred throughout the occupation from time to time. Germanywas more fortunate than some other European countries where the disease was moreprevalent. Rabies was not prevalent during the occupation, probably due togeneral good control of dogs in Germany. Scabies of horses was very prevalentat the end of the war and continued during the first year of occupation beforeintensive measures brought the disease under control. Hog cholera continued tobe mildly prevalent during the occupation. Through the efforts of the OMGUSveterinary officer, techniques for manufacture of crystal violet-attenuatedcholera vaccine were introduced into Germany. This new immunization method wasused especially in Bavaria. Tuberculosis of cattle in Germany at the end of thewar was estimated as high as 30 percent, with certain areas almost 100 percentinfected. Immediate widespread test-and-slaughter methods were impracticable.Thus, long-range eradication programs were prepared by the Germans, with thefull support of the ACA. Considerable progress for its eradication had beenaccomplished by the end of occupation. Emphasis was placed upon thepasteurization of milk and inspection of meat as measures for preventing humaninfection.
Meat inspection.-Theinspection of slaughter animals and meat was highly organized and was based onthe Reich law of 3 June 1900, as amended. There were some 500 slaughterhouses inGermany before the war, almost all being city owned. The law required that aspecially trained veterinarian be the director; this was in addition to theusual veterinary and lay meat inspectors. The law covered the customaryfunctions such as organization, quali?fication and appointment of personnel,slaughter permits, ante mortem and post mortem inspection procedures, inspectionof meat outside of regular slaughterhouses, laboratory examination of meat,inspection of import and export meat, transportation and storage of meat,records and reports, control of Freibank meat, handling of glands used forpharmaceuticals, and supervision of public sale of meat. While the higherechelons exercised general supervision, the Kreis veterinarians andslaughterhouse directors were responsible for routine meat inspection service.In rural areas, where there were no public slaughterhouses, certain butcherswere licensed to slaughter animals under the inspection of trained layinspectors.
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Slaughterhouses sustainedconsiderable aerial-bombing damage during the war because of their usuallocation near railroad yards. Early occupation efforts were directed towardminimum rehabilitation to get plants in operation. One problem arose inconnection with slaughter methods. The law required that large animals bestunned by a captive-bolt pistol, using a blank cartridge. At the beginning ofoccupation, the ACA prohibited the manufacture of explosives as a part of thedemilitarization program. The pistol method requirement of the law was,therefore, overlooked temporarily, and stunning by hand methods was authorized.The OMGUS veterinary officer appealed successfully to the ACA to permit limitedand controlled manufacture of the required ammunition.
After a few difficult monthsearly in the occupation, adequate numbers of veterinary and lay meat inspectorsbecame available and were able to carry on relatively normal inspectionoperations. OMGUS required the submission of monthly meat inspection reports toCA/MG veterinary offices for general information on this activity.
Milk inspection.-Milkinspection was based on the Reich law of 31 July 1930, as amended. Veterinaryinspection was limited to health examination of cows, laboratory examination forpathogenic bacteria (tuberculosis), and sanitary inspection of milk pasteurizingplants. The Kreis veterinarian did most of the milk inspection work personally.There were some 8,000 dairy plants in Germany before the war.
Milk plants sustained somewar damage, especially in larger cities. Equipment was in poor repair due towartime shortage of material. Fuel was in short supply. The danger fromtuberculosis-infected raw milk made proper pasteurization imperative. Thus CA/MGgave high priority to the rehabilitation and operation of milk plants early inthe occupation. Veterinary service as related to milk inspection was soonreinstated to a satisfactory degree. A monthly summary report of veterinarymilk inspection from each Kreis veterinarian was required by CA/MG in the earlymonths of the occupation.
Other food inspection.-Various Reich laws required veterinarians to take part in inspectionof fish, eggs, game, food plant hygiene, and so forth. Such activities continuedin the occupation, with difficulties similar to other control work.
Carcass disposal.-Plants(knackeries) for the disposal of animal carcasses and similar materials werelocated throughout the country. Products derived were hides, fat for soapmaking,and meat meal for animal feeding and fertilizer. The veterinary service wasinvolved in these operations as a part of the disease control program. Theknackeries posed no special prob?lems except for fuel needs in earlyoccupation. Since the products from them were in short supply, priority wasgiven to their operation.
Veterinary laboratories.-Veterinary laboratories were provided fordisease diagnosis,food testing, and research and production of biological prod-
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ucts. Most of the researchand specialized laboratories were operated by the Reich government. Routinedisease diagnosis and food testing were done in the provincial laboratories.Veterinary and agricultural colleges also had laboratories for special problems,as did the larger slaughterhouses. Before the war there were 10 national and 34provincial laboratories.
Despite some war damage,most laboratories were operative. They, too, suffered from short supply of fuel,old equipment in need of repair or replacement, and lack of enough technicallytrained personnel. Thus, ACA and the German veterinary service gave considerablepriority to rehabilitation of the laboratories. In the beginning, most attentionwas given to the most important functions of the laboratories such as diseasediagnosis, food testing, and certain biological production. All research workwas deferred.
Veterinary education.-Veterinary colleges were located atHannover, Berlin, Leipzig, Giessen, and Munich. The schools had excellent facilities and faculties.Admission requirements and curriculums were similar to those in other moderncountries. In line with the general CA/MG policy, all schools were closedtemporarily at the collapse of Germany in order to survey the influence of Naziteaching materials and instructors. First attention was given to elementaryeducation and last to universities. Soon after the beginning of occupation,CA/MG surveys were made of the veterinary schools and plans made for theirreopening. The policy of the ACA was soon changed to permit full operation ofhigher technical schools (including veterinary) within a few months. The Munichschool had been closed by the Germans in 1939. All of the schools, exceptLeipzig, had suffered heavy war damage both to buildings and equipment. Becauseof the very widespread destruction everywhere, there was great competition forrepair materials and labor. After some months, however, the schools wererepaired for limited operations. During the first year or two, one of therequirements for the students was the donation of labor time for repair work.Many members of the prewar faculties had gone into military service and had beenkilled or injured. The Nazi influence had been pushed deeply into alleducational levels; thus, many instructors were unacceptable to CA/MG. As in theUnited States, the Germans soon established a policy of giving priority toeducation of war veterans. Thus there were large numbers of applicants to theveterinary schools but inadequate facilities.
During the war years, worldveterinary literature had almost ceased to enter Germany, partly because of lackof outside communication and partly because of Nazi attempts to keep outnon-German literature. When the Allied armies entered Germany, a great desireamong professional people for outside literature was encountered. In the case ofveterinary operations, the OMGUS veterinary officer arranged with the AmericanVeterinary Medical Association, American veterinary schools, U.S. Governmentagencies, and other organizations to send to Germany large quantities oftextbooks, magazines, and so forth. There had been great war damage to Germanpublish-
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ing houses and stocks ofbooks. CA/MG gave considerable priority to rehabilitating publishing facilitiesafter several months. The Germans reopened the Munich school later in theoccupation.
Veterinary supplies.-Priorto the war, Germany was not only self?supporting in veterinary supplies, butexported considerable amounts. The large chemical industry easily suppliedveterinary drugs. The extensive metal industry furnished veterinary instruments.Several large commercial biological manufacturers and some governmentlaboratories furnished necessary biologicals. There was a national biologicalcertification laboratory.
German army veterinarysupplies remaining at V-E Day were soon turned over for civilian veterinary use.These provided for minimum requirements during the first few months whenindustrial production facilities were being rehabilitated. The ACA VeterinarySubcommittee assisted in rehabilitation of veterinary supply production andshipping from production areas to using areas.
Fortunately, biologicalswere in ample supply. Before the entrance into Germany, it was learned that avery large commercial vaccine and serum production plant (the Behringwerke) waslocated at the small city of Marburg in the area to be a part of the U.S. Zoneof Occupation. This plant supplied some 80 percent of the medical and veterinarybiologicals in pre?war Germany. Instructions were given to the combatcommanders in the Marburg area to prevent damage to the plant. The plant wascaptured intact, but several hundred serum-producing horses were killed forfood by displaced persons liberated from a nearby detention camp by U.S. troops.A veterinary CA/MG officer was placed in complete control of the plant soonafter occupation began, partly because of its medical supply impor?tance andpartly because it belonged to the I. G. Farben cartel which was being broken upby ACA policy. This firm, together with smaller commercial biologicallaboratories and the Land veterinary laboratories, supplied all neededveterinary biologicals except foot-and-mouth disease vaccine. This vaccine hadbeen produced at the Reich Institute on the island of Riems, now in the RussianZone of Occupation. The Russians had partially dismantled the plant after theGerman collapse but later permitted the Germans to rehabilitate it to a limitedextent. Because of the cutting off of this source of supply, the Behringwerke,with the aid of CA/MG, soon constructed a foot-and-mouth disease vaccineproducing department.
Animal husbandry.-The Germanveterinary service had many activities in connection with livestock raising andcare. Some of these were advice and assistance in animal hygiene, feeding,stabling, horseshoeing, artificial insemination, and prevention of cruelty.
All types of livestockdecreased during the war years (table 36). This was due to interference of allaspects of animal husbandry activities, although considerable numbers werekilled during the bombing and land combat in Germany. The decrease wasparticularly noticeable in swine and poultry.
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The early policy of CA/MGand the German Food and Agriculture officials was to stimulate an increase toapproximately the prewar level. This increase was evident even by late 1946.
TABLE 36.- Numbersof German livestock, 1938, 1945, and 1946
Livestock | 1938 (March) | 1945 (March) | 1946 (December) |
| Thousands | Thousands | Thousands |
Horses | 2,380 | 2,200 | 2,200 |
Cattle | 15,840 | 13,690 | 13,980 |
Swine | 18,000 | 7,140 | 8,410 |
Sheep and goats | 5,950 | 4,600 | 5,090 |
Poultry | 76,790 | 32,560 | 38,920 |
Source: Official German censuses.
Military Government inAustria
Austria, occupied andintegrated into Germany by the Nazis in their Anschluss of 1938, was overrun andliberated by the Allied military forces during the last week of April 1945. Soonafter V-E Day, the American combat units that had begun the early restoration oflaw and order were reorganized under control of the European theater as UnitedStates Forces in Austria, with headquarters at Salzburg in the American Zone ofOccupied Austria. Austrian civil matters, as contrasted to military occupationalactivities, now became the responsibility of a quadripartite Allied ControlCommission comprised of representative members from Britain, France, SovietUnion, and the United States. The last-named representative, the U.S.Commissioner, Austria, reported direct to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Washington,D.C. Aside from the four zones of military occupation, quadripartite controlwas set up in Austria's capital city under the organization of the Vienna AreaCommand (map 10). Within the organization of the U.S. element, or civil affairssection of the Allied Commission, Austria, matters relating to the sanitarysituation among the Austrian meat and dairy industries and the country's animaldisease controls were handled by one or more Veterinary Corps officers who wereassigned to the Public Health Branch, Internal Affairs Division, and incooperation with the Agriculture and Forestry Branch, Economic Division. Inmid-1946, when military government activities at the level of political states(or Laender) were withdrawn in favor of only a limited, or central, directionof the Austrian Government-pursuant to a new Allied control agreement-theforegoing organization was revised to better conform to the Austrian civilgovernment; public health activities were transferred to the control of theLabor Division, which was redesignated Social Administration Division. Atabout this time, the Army Veterinary Service with the civil affairs organizationin Austria ended.
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In the U.S. area of occupiedAustria, the civil veterinary profession administered the sanitary operations ofabattoirs and the production of milk. As of December 1945-January 1946, the areaanimal population approximated 73,000 horses, 551,000 cattle, 117,000 sheep andgoats, 197,000 pigs, 729,000 poultry (chickens), and 77,000 beehives. Due toshortages of cereals arising as these were diverted to feeding the humanpopulation, animals were required to be moved out of the American Zone; inVienna, the shortages of animal feed became especially critical.
Rabies occurred sporadicallyfor the first time since 1926, and horse scabies-newlyintroduced-reachedenzootic proportions during the first winter months of occupation. Otherdiseases reported in the Austrian animal population as of June 1946 werefoot-and-mouth disease, glanders, swine erysipelas, foul pest, bovinetuberculosis, and a so-called poliomyelitis of swine. Biologicals forcontrolling these diseases were generally obtainable from a plant in the RussianZone; other supplies and veterinary equipment were provided through Army supplychannels. It may be mentioned, also, that the veterinary profession in theAmerican Zone was numerically a half of that reported in 1939.
PACIFIC THEATERS
Central Pacific Area
In the Central Pacific Area,CA/MG activities first were experienced by the Army Veterinary Service when,following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Territory of Hawaii was declared underthe rule of the Commanding General, Hawaiian Department, as the MilitaryGovernor (7). The degree of military government over the Hawaiian Islands wasgreatly lessened as the war progressed, and, without a doubt, this was not thesame kind of military government operation as applied to any other area whichwas liberated or occupied by the Army. However, one of the first activitiesundertaken by the Army Veterinary Service following the Japanese aerial attackwas the testing of fresh milk supplies in Honolulu for detection of possiblesabotage by the addition of bacterial or chemical poisons. This testing wasaccomplished on request of the Department Surgeon for the purpose of protectingthe civil population against mass infection, which necessarily would haveinvolved the utilization of the existent, but limited, Army hospitals andother medical treatment facilities. What occurred thereafter was moredescriptive of the antibiological warfare program that soon saw the integrationof military veterinary personnel as civilian laborers in key points within theisland's dairy plants, ice cream factories, sandwich assembly shops, and sodabottling plants. This veterinary activity, coming into operation on all of theHawaiian Islands for the remainder of the following period, sufficientlyaccomplished the primary mission to safeguard the local food supply but also didmuch more than that. It aided the civilian indus-
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tries in keeping theirlabor, obtaining critically needed equipment and supplies, and addingimprovements (some being greatly needed) in sanitary and other qualityproduction techniques. In addition to this, in the capacity of militaryassistant and adviser to the Office of the Military Governor, the HawaiianDepartment veterinarian aided in the maintenance of the civilian food suppliesthat were now being stored as "reserve," and cooperated withterritorial governmental agencies and the civilian veterinary profession in theoperation of agricultural quarantines against the introduction of diseases byindiscriminate importations of animals into the Hawaiian Islands. Theveterinary officers with the Army garrison commands on Kauai, Maui, Molokai,Lanai, and Hawaii Islands also cooperated with local veterinarians andgovernment authorities in matters concerning civilian food supplies and animalquarantine, and all Army veterinary personnel and supplies would have been madeavailable in the event of need to control any disease enzootic among thecivilian livestock population.
Outside of the HawaiianIslands and until after the assault landings were made on Okinawa (on 1 April1945), CA/MG operations in the islands of the Central Pacific Area wereadministered by the Navy. Though there was no central planning for the use ofthe Army veterinary personnel in such operations, each naval civil affairsadministrator or military governor seemed to have requested the assistance ofthe veterinary officer(s) who accompanied the Army garrison force command whichestablished itself on an island following recapture or seizure from theJapanese enemy. This occurred when the Marshall Islands (Kwajalein, Majuro, andEniwetok atolls) were seized, after the summer of 1944 when the Marianas (Guam,Saipan, and Tinian) were invaded, and then on Angaur in the Palau groups.Earlier experiences, rather than official information, on Navy planning for theoccupation of the Marianas were causes for the Army Veterinary Service toinformally prepare to assist the Navy in its CA/MG there. In fact, theVeterinarian, USAF, Central Pacific Area, successfully obtained personnel spaceauthorizations and materiel in the Army garrison force commands for theseislands such as were believed needed to satisfy the more urgent demands for Armyveterinary assistance. Also, limited quantities of various veterinary suppliesand equipment, including some few selected biologicals for the control of animaldiseases, were procured from the Zone of Interior and stockpiled by the ArmyMedical Department, but it was intended that the Navy would procure these forthe Army Veterinary Service if the initial Army supply should be depleted in thenaval activities. It may be noted that no Veterinary Corps officer wasexpressly assigned with primary duty in CA/MG in the Central Pacific Area, oreven for the Okinawa campaign, so that these CA/MG activities, as well as allmilitary matters within the geological limitation of each island, wereconducted under the singular supervision of the headquarters veterinarian ofthe respective Army garrison force or Army?administered island command. Thisjoining of the two activities was an
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exception to basic Armypolicy that they would be the separate Army responsibilities of two staffgroups of personnel (2), but the nature of joint Army-Navy operations in thetheater and the extent of CA/MG activities, together with numerous shortages ofArmy veterinary officers, necessitated that veterinary officers be utilized inthis dual capacity.
Army Veterinary Corpsofficers usually were the only veterinarians available after theArmy-Navy-Marine Corps task forces landed in the Marshall?Gilbert, Marianas,and Palau groups. Two civilian Japanese veterinarians were captured on Saipan-formerly Japanese-mandatedisland-but these were not released from theinternment camps for use in CA/MG operations. On Guam, following V-J Day, aveterinarian was brought in from the United States as a civilian employee tosupervise the development of a local dairy herd and operation of a milk plant aspart of a project of the Federal Economics Administration. On Kwajalein, Guam,Saipan, and Tinian, the Army garrison force veterinarians surveyed the localanimal situation, usually supervised the handling of the livestock for the Navy,and treated the animals which were sick, injured, or wounded. In the combatareas, animals frequently were targets of small arms and artillery fire, provedespecially troublesome to patrols and guards at night, tangled in thecommunications wires lying on the ground, and, if confined, were unwatered andnearly starved. They were assembled as soon as the frontline combat situationpermitted, examined for physical condition and health, treated as required, andthen disposed of in a variety of ways. They were slaughtered for supplyingmeat to interned civilians and prisoners of war, redistributed to the nativecivilian population, or established in animal farms. Actually, the animals wereso disposed of without, reference to any particular policy because militarypriorities both for new airfield construction and for shipping troops andsupplies had reduced the available grazing areas and had prevented theimportation of animal feeds; further, base development plans for the postwarcivilian economy in these islands were unknown. The inspection and supervisionover reclamation of captured Japanese foods comprised another veterinary CA/MGactivity, and, on some islands, the native fishing industry was reestablished assoon as problems of military security and facilities, including icerefrigeration, were met.
As might be expected, thelivestock populations in the islands of the Central Pacific Area werenumerically small, and there were no major meat and dairy industries. In fact,neither the natives nor the Japanese were consumers of much meat (except fish),and the islands were unsuited to support many more animals than were found thereafter the American landings. Frequently, many animals on the islands wereslaughtered by the Japanese military forces during the last few months of theiroccupancy. For example, on Guam-United States territory which was occupied bythe Japanese in December 1941 and then recaptured in 1944-the cattlepopulationhad decreased from 4,000 to 1,776, and that of carabao from 900 to 429.
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As of January 1945, therewere also on Guam 69 goats, 688 swine, and 2,512 poultry. The former Japanesemandate islands of Saipan and Tinian each had 500-700 cattle, 300-500boats, 100-300 swine, and more than a thousand poultry, when they were captured(fig. 46). On Kwajalein, 50 swine and some few chickens, which had belonged tothe Japanese military forces there, were transferred to the native Marshallese,and on Angaur, much the same disposition to the native population was made offew pigs, chickens, and many boats which were captured. In regard to horses,only two were captured on Saipan and three on Angaur.
In addition to theveterinary CA/MG activities concerning livestock and the feeding of internedpersonnel and prisoners of war, the Army Veterinary Service investigated thelocal animal disease situation and developed plans for rabies control and theoperation of quarantine procedures. Actually, the animals on most islands wereshown to be free of diseases that were common to Japan and which might have beenintroduced by the enemy. Unfortunately, shortly following V-J Day, Guam wasselected as the off?shore quarantine station to process and test a shipment ofBrahma cattle of Indian origin being brought into the United States by the U.S.Department of Agriculture; on request, the local Army veterinary officersupervised the receipt, processing, and shipment of these animals. On Saipan, anenzootic of erysipelas occurred in August-September 1944 and resulted in theloss of
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70 swine among a group of120 before the disease could be controlled. A professional team from the 18thMedical General Laboratory and a U.S. Navy laboratory unit completed an animaldisease survey on the same island. Bovine brucellosis was uncovered among nativecattle, and liver fluke (Fasciola gigantica), tick (Boophilus sp.), and commonectoparasites and endoparasites were demonstrated in the various animal species;however, the more serious animal diseases, such as anaplasmosis, glanders,Johne's disease, piroplasmosis, and tuberculosis, were not demonstrated in theanimals which were examined.
Okinawa
At about the time the activefighting in the Marianas was over, the Army Veterinary Service in the CentralPacific Area (after 1 August 1944, designated as U.S. Army Forces, Pacific OceanAreas) was well prepared to assist in nearly anyCA/MG activity which would arise in forthcoming campaigns. For the planning ofOperation ICEBERG, the Army and Navy assault on the Ryukyu Islands (includingOkinawa and Ie Shima) in April 1945, the Navy had transferred its CA/MG to thejurisdiction of the Army. Thus, before the invasion, Headquarters, Tenth U.S.Army, established its own civil affairs staff section, later renamed MilitaryGovernment Section. The latter was the nucleus of Military GovernmentHeadquarters, Island Command, that was formed during January 1945 in theHawaiian Islands where most of the ground forces were. Military GovernmentHeadquarters for Okinawa was assigned responsibility for all civil matters onOkinawa, even in the combat divisional areas of the Tenth U.S. Army. AVeterinary Corps officer was not assigned to this military governmentorganization, however, because its veterinary activities were to be integratedinto the overall military veterinary service on Okinawa that would be conductedunder the singular supervision of the Veterinarian, Headquarters, Island Command(8).
The Headquarters, IslandCommand, had the personnel and was provided with the equipment such as wereneeded to meet the needs of all military government activities on the island. Inthe beginning of the campaign, the Tenth U.S. Army veterinarian cooperated withthe Island Command's veterinary organization in caring for and treatingcaptured animals and in inspecting the foods and food animals which were used inthe feeding of civilians who were interned. Furthermore, in June 1945, a TenthU.S. Army veterinary officer was placed on temporary duty with MilitaryGovernment Headquarters, with station at Ishikawa, to serve as attendingveterinarian to the internment camps in the area and certain Okinawan districtheadquarters. Simultaneously, Headquarters, Island Command, deployed the 145thVeterinary Food Inspection Detachment to military government activities in theTaira district to cooperate in the military govern?ment operations of the 6thMarine Division in Tag o, P.I. TheOkinawa
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campaign ended on 22 June1945, and the number of Okinawans under immediate military control thenapproximated 200,000.
The functional organizationand activities of the civil veterinary profession on Okinawa before theAmerican landings apparently compared with that observed later in the occupationof Japan-the latter having annexed Okinawa in the late 1800's. Only sixJapanese-educated veterinarians came under the jurisdiction of militarygovernment, and these, in August 1945, were utilized to care for the animalswhich were assembled and maintained in the internment camps. Interrogationsof these personnel indicated that the animal disease situation on Okinawa wasbetter than might have been expected and confirmed the results of preliminaryinvestigations which were made by the Army Veterinary Service. The malleintest of 835 horses showed glanders not to be present, and tuberculin test of 90cattle and goats showed no tuberculosis although the captured veterinarians hadindicated that the two diseases were present-of course, many of the 40,000cattle that were once present were killed for food by the Japanese during thelast year of their occupancy. Boynton-tissue vaccine of U.S. origin was used tovaccinate the local swine population against hog cholera. Anthrax, equineinfectious anemia, and rabies were nonexistent, but there were a number ofequally serious contagions that were reportedly present, including equineencephalomyelitis, piroplasmosis, scabies, swine erysipelas, bovine brucellosis, and liver fluke infestation.
Ie Shima-another island ofthe Ryukyu group and situated northwest of Okinawa-was invaded by a divisionalelement of the Tenth U.S. Army in mid-April 1945, and, before the end of thenext month, the Army garrison force veterinarian there had 375 horses, 30cattle, 60 swine, and 100 goats under his supervision.
Southwest Pacific Area
Generally, the ArmyVeterinary Service had little or nothing to do with CA/MG operations in theSouthwest Pacific Area. In August 1944, GHQ, SWPA (General Headquarters,Southwest Pacific Area), which was an Allied command, added a Civil AffairsSection to its organization which included a health and sanitation component andfive other components but nothing directly relative to agriculture or veterinarymatters. Similar staff sections were soon established in the field armiesheadquarters (namely, that of the Sixth and Eighth U.S. Armies) and inHeadquarters, USAFFE (U.S. Army Forces in the Far East). In the next month,on New Guinea, the USAFFE command established a parent organizational unit, thePhilippine Civil Affairs Division; this division was to organize, train, andotherwise administer Philippine Civil Affairs Units, each with 10 officersand 39 enlisted personnel, such as were to be attached to field armies and theservice or base commands. Eight such units accompanied the Sixth U.S. Armyin the landings and campaign on Leyte, on 20 October 1944. Eventually, 30
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units were organized beforethe Philippine Islands were completely retaken from the Japanese. These unitsestablished civil administration and provided relief supplies to civilians,but as soon as the local combat situation permitted, the civil administrationwas given up to representatives of the Commonwealth of the Philippines;assistance was provided when requested, but there was no interference with civiloperations. The supplies of food provided by the Army were inspected, but beyondthis there was no profes?sional activity undertaken by the Army VeterinaryService, such as rehabilitation of the civil veterinary organization or thefood and livestock industries in the Philippines. At least one veterinaryofficer, arriving in New Guinea for eventual assignment in civil affairs duties-pursuant to WarDepartment orders-was ordered into a Philippine CivilAffairs Unit (the 21st) but was utilized as the unit supply officer when theunit was deployed to the Philippines. It was observed that the organization ofPhilippine Civil Affairs Units was too fixed to permit the integration ofveterinary officers, and that: "Nowhere in the SOP (Standing OperatingProcedure) of Philippine Civil Affairs has provision been made for renderingto the livestock industry a service similar in nature to what the medicalofficer will render to the civilian population nor could any high staff officersgive * * * any assurance that such consideration was contemplated" (9).
As the postwar occupation ofJapan got underway, the responsibility for the U.S. program of supply assistancein the area was transferred from the Army to U.S. civil agencies.
As this was taking place, orin August 1945, the Philippine civil affairs organization of Headquarters,USAFFE (now called Headquarters, U.S. Army Forces, Pacific) was abolished, andthe concerned personnel were transferred to, or came under control of, thenewly created Military Government Section, GHQ, USAFPAC (General Headquarters,U.S. Army Forces in the Pacific). The section included a Public Health andWelfare Division, to which a Veterinary Corps officer was assigned following hisarrival, in that month, at Manila, P.I., from the Zone of Interior. Preparationsnow were well underway for early military occupation of Japan.
Japan
The Army Veterinary Servicewith military government in Japan and Korea had its start on 7 August 1945,when, in connection with the planning for Operations OLYMPIC and CORONET (or theassault and landings on Kysuhu and on the Tokyo Plain of Honshu), a VeterinaryCorps officer reported for duty in the War Department's Civil Affairs Division (10). Later in the month, this officer was transferred to, and included in, theMilitary Government Section, GHQ, USAFPAC, that-as was mentioned in thepreceding paragraph-was now being organized at Manila. Of course, the suddencapitulation of Japan (on 14 August 1945) saw major changes in the foregoingplans which had contemplated a kind of military
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government operation as wasexperienced in Italy and continental Europe. As the new Operation BLACKLIST,which established the pattern of the military occupation, got underway, USAFPAC's Public Health and Welfare Division lost its personnel, including theaforementioned veterinary officer (who arrived in Japan on 23 September), to thenewly organized GHQ, SCAP (General Headquarters, Supreme Commander for theAllied Powers). These personnel now comprised a newly formed Public Health andWelfare Section which acted as adviser to the Supreme Commander for allnon?militarymedical activities in occupied Japan. The section was headed by a Medical Corpsofficer as chief of section and was internally organized to include severaldivisions, one being the Veterinary Affairs Division.
Under the direction of thechief of the Public Health and Welfare Section, the chief of the VeterinaryAffairs Division functioned as adviser on veterinary matters which would preventdisease and unrest among the Japanese civilian population; protect the healthand further the accomplishment of the mission of the occupation forces;satisfy the minimal or essential humanitarian, public health, and welfarerequirements of the civil population; and aid in the repatriation of displacedJapanese. More specifically, veterinary professional and technicalrecommendations were made (1) with respect to the adequacy of the controls overanimal diseases transmissible to man that threatened the military occupationtroops and civil populations or that might impair the Japanese livestock andtransport animal industries, and (2) as to the efficacy of the country'ssanitary control over its meat, dairy, and fish industries. Liaison wasmaintained with, and professional assistance was provided to, the GeneralHeadquarters' Natural Resources, and Economic and Scientific Sections and,within the Public Health and Welfare Section, to the Medical Supply Division.Essentially, only recommendations were made by these headquarters sections toSCAP who alone could order compliance by the Japanese Government; in practice,the Japanese Government was allowed to continue the governing of Japanbecause, unlike in Occupied Germany, the central government was not abolishednor the country's laws discarded and replaced by true military government byArmy personnel; SCAP was established as superior to the Emperor of Japan and theImperial Japanese Government. This was commonly referred to as indirect militarygovernment. The staff's Veterinary Affairs Division was augmented by anotherofficer in November 1945, but the latter was replaced in the summer of 1946 byan American veterinarian employed in a civilian capacity.
Below the level of GHQ, SCAP, there were military government teams which observed or acted assurveillance inspectors of the Japanese Government organizations at theregional level and in the prefectures, including the Tokyo-Kanagawa District.The teams were administered by Headquarters, Eighth U.S. Army (located atYokohama) or the latter's IX Corps (with headquarters at Sendai) and I Corps(with headquarters at Kyoto),
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each having its own militarygovernment staff section. (USAFPAC comprised the truly military occupationaltroops, but it had nothing to do with military government over the Japanese.) Aveterinary officer was assigned to the Eighth U.S. Army's military governmentsection in November 1945, and during June 1946, others came on duty with twomilitary government teams, now called the 105th Military Government Group, atSendai and the 74th Military Government Company, at Sapporo. The SCAP veterinaryofficer had requested one officer for each of the eight regional militarygovernment teams, but this request was denied due to the policy of reducingmilitary government personnel.
The duties and functions ofmilitary government veterinary officers in Japan were expressly defined by GHQ,SCAP, as being those "of surveillance of Japanese veterinary andlivestock officials to ascertain if the directives of the Supreme Commander arebeing complied with" and "of giving professional guidance to theJapanese" (9). In regard to the first-named function and duty, thefollowing summary notes were added:
The surveillanceresponsibility of Military Government Veterinary Officers will require frequentdetailed investigations at local levels to determine status of compliance bylocal Japanese veterinary and livestock officials with the instructions of theSupreme Commander for the Allied Powers to the Imperial Japanese Government. Control of epidemic animal diseases is of primary importance. Personalinvestigation of significant outbreaks accompanied by civilian officials isnecessary in order to determine the efficacy of control measures in effect andthe rendition of required reports.
Slaughterhouses, milk plantsand dairy farms must be visited in order to determine the existence and adequacyof inspections. The frequency and adequacy of reports must be investigated inorder to insure authentic statistical data. Any failure on the part of theJapanese agencies to carry out adequately all instructions will be reportedimmedi?ately through channels whenever the irregularities cannot be correctedlocally.
The basic document relatingto civil veterinary organization and activities in occupied Japan waspromulgated by GHQ, SCAP, on 30 October 1945 (12). By memorandum to the ImperialJapanese Government, the latter was directed to: (1) Inaugurate or reestablishmeasures for the control of animal diseases and the inspection of meat and dairyproducts; (2) preserve statistical records relating to animal diseases and tomeat and dairy hygiene inspections; (3) prepare and submit special periodicreports on certain contagious diseases, monthly reports on meat and dairyhygiene inspections, and an annual report on the production of veterinarybiologicals; and (4) report by the end of the next month on those steps whichthe Japanese Government had taken to comply. This directive was followed on 18March 1945, by another to the Commanding General, Eighth U.S. Army, and tomilitary government personnel concerning their supervisory actions andsurveillance over the Japanese, who now were to "promptly reestablish aself-sufficient, indigenous veterinary service in occupied areas (13, 14). In sodoing, the Japanese veterinary service was to accomplish four objects: "(1)Prevention and control of animal diseases transmissible
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to man which might seriouslyaffect the health of the Occupation Forces or the civil population; (2)prevention and control of animal diseases which might interfere with indigenousfood supplies or draft animals; (3) inspection of foods of animal origin in anefficient manner; (4) rendition of reports containing reliable statisticaldata concerning veterinary affairs." In the accomplishment of theseobjectives, the Japanese activities were only to be under the surveillance ofthe military government teams who would collect, analyze, and act as fieldagencies reporting through military channels to General Headquarters; the teamsalso were to stimulate or insure that the Japanese officials were rendering anefficient service and enforcing the provisions of the directives of SCAP and oftheir own laws and regulations. Of course, key points and special areas ofdisease control, meat and dairy hygiene inspections, and veterinary laboratoryservice and research were described as requiring surveillance. Later in thatyear (1946), new regulations relating to meat inspection and dairy hygienethat had been adopted by the Japanese Ministry of Health and Social Affairs-onrecommendation by the Army Veterinary Service-were promulgated in two PublicHealth and Welfare Technical Bulletins and set forth as a guide to militarygovernmentpersonnel to stimulate the sanitary improvement in Japan's meat and dairyindustries (15, 16).
Military governmentterminated in Japan soon after the signing of a peace treaty on 8 September1951.
Civil veterinaryservices.-The functional organization of Japaneseveterinary affairs at thelevel of national government was divided among three ministries: Ministry ofHealth and Social Affairs (or Welfare), Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry,and Ministry of Education. Also, there was the Japanese army veterinary service,with approximately 5,000 veterinarians, but this was demobilized. At the onsetof the occupation, the first-named ministry included a Sanitary Bureau, and thelatter, the Veterinary Hygiene Section which regulated the country's meat anddairy hygiene inspection services and conducted laboratory examinations andanalyses of food. On the other hand, animal disease control, port quarantine,and licensing of veterinary personnel were handled by the Ministry ofAgriculture and Forestry through its Animal Hygiene Section, and its LaboratorySection administered clinicodiagnostic laboratories, animal disease research,and the production of veterinary biologicals. The Japanese Ministry of Educationcontrolled the school or educational phase of veterinary medicine. Below thelevel of the national government, there were more than 40 prefectures (or kens); the prefecture veterinary service organization was similar to the nationalorganization with its health and welfare section controlling the local meat anddairy hygiene services and the prefecture agricultural section in charge ofanimal disease control.
Japan's veterinaryprofession numbered 21,000 members at the start of the occupation period andwere regulated as regards their licensure bythe
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Ministry of Agriculture andForestry. A license was granted without examination to graduates fromuniversities or colleges approved by and functioning under control of theMinistry of Education, whereas nongraduates could gain license by examination.However, this procedure was being changed, on recommendation of the JapaneseCouncil on Veterinary Education-which was created by direction of militarygovernment-so that only graduates would be examined and licensed. There were 23educational institutions, having a normal student body of 4,000. Two of theseinstitutions were the Tokyo Imperial University and the Hokkaido ImperialUniversity which were the best of their kind in regard to veterinary educationin Japan. The others included national and prefecture colleges of agricultureand forestry, private colleges, and a number of prefecture "middle"agricultural schools-the last having minimal entrance requirements andoperating an American?type high school course mostly in agriculture. Steps wereundertaken to raise the level of veterinary education to more closely parallelthat of the Imperial universities and to revise the regular 3-year courses byadding a fourth year in the professional veterinary college curriculum. Many ofthe graduates were employed on governmental work or by private agriculturalgroups and conducted private practice in addition to other employment. About afourth of the licensed veterinarians were members of the Japanese VeterinaryMedical Association, which functioned under the control of the Ministry ofAgriculture and Forestry; it, as well as professional journals, had becomeinoperative during the war period, but efforts were undertaken early during theoccupation for their revival.
Though Japan is an agrariancountry, its livestock industry was relatively a small one. Actually, theJapanese are not consumers of much meat (except fish), probably because theBuddhist religion discourages the killing of animals, and the amount and natureof tillable soil is not adequate to support the pasturage or the raising ofcereals for feeding animals. The Japanese requirements and the national interestin sports stimulated the breeding and raising of horses, but, for the most part,horses and cattle were used for draft purposes on the small Japanese farms.There were not many dairy-type cows or meat-producing-type animals, althoughsome few goats, swine, poultry, and rabbits were raised to augment the foodsupply in certain areas. The war did not result in any serious depletion of thenumber of animals in Japan except possibly of poultry and swine. The Japaneseestimated the livestock population for 1945 as including 1,250,000 horses,2,320,000 cattle, 180,000 sheep, 250,000 goats, 250,000 swine, 23,000,000chickens and ducks, and 3,200,000 rabbits. It may be noted that 67,000 to 80,000horses belonging to the former Japanese army were disposed of by sale tocivilians soon after military occupation got underway; however, 30,000 of thesewere slaughtered (outside of legitimate supply channels) because of the existentshortages in food supplies. Also, the horses were of unsuitable type or in poorphysical condition for use on the farms. The
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animal disease situation hadnot reached a critical point when the Allied forces began the militaryoccupation of Japan, even though the normal regulatory controls over animalswere curtailed or disrupted by the wartime shortages in facilities and number ofpersonnel. Of course, it must be emphasized that the Japanese islands were notsubjected to concerted aerial attacks until after the winter of 1944-45, whichended when the atomic bombs were dropped over Hiroshima, and Nagasaki.
The control of animaldiseases was the subject of a number of Japanese laws and regulations whichwere administered by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry; however,responsibility for actual law enforcement was decentralized to the prefecturalgovernments. The military occupational forces concerned with military governmentmade no changes in the laws but only conducted a surveillance of each Japaneseprefecture official in his manner of performing the prescribed regulatoryactivities. The most important of the Japanese legal documents was the Law forthe Prevention of Infectious Diseases of Domestic Animals, which provided forthe actions to be taken when a disease appeared, including quarantine,immunization, sanitation and disinfection, disposal of infected animals andcarcasses, reporting, reimbursement to owners of the affected animals, andpenalties if the law's provisions were violated. Two other laws expresslyconcerned the control of equine infectious anemia and bovine tuberculosis, and aJapanese Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry regulation (in effect since 1923)governed the performance of port quarantine of animals at 12 locations. GHQ,SCAP, assumed responsibility to limit any postwar importations of animals inview of the hazards of introducing diseases into Japan and the inability of theJapanese economy to support them. Also, there was an Imperial ordinance forcollecting money from the national and prefecture governments and individualowners to pay for these animal disease controls. The principal, or reportable,diseases of animals reported in Japan were anthrax, blackleg, brucellosis (orbovine infectious abortion), equine encephalomyelitis, equine infectious anemia,erysipelas, fowl cholera, fowl pest, glanders, pullorum disease (or whitediarrhea of chickens), rabies, scabies, swine cholera, swine plague, Texasfever, and trichomoniasis.
Regulatory sanitary controlsover the Japanese meat and milk industries were maintained by the Ministry ofHealth and Social Affairs, but the actual supervision of the country's meatinspection law (or slaughterhouse law, which was originally promulgated in the1870's and revised in 1906) and the dairy hygiene regulations (or milk code,which was adopted in 1933) were the responsibility of the local prefecturegovernment. The latter employed the milk inspectors and as many as 625inspectors who worked in the 712 slaughterhouses throughout Japan. The twoindustries were made up of a great number of small slaughterhouses and of dairyfarms and milk plants, but their total output was relatively small for feedingthe Japanese population as compared to the production of the same industries tosatisfy
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consumer demands in theUnited States. The estimated output of the Japanese meat industry for 1945covered the slaughter of 70,000 horses, 120,000 cattle, 30,000 calves, 1,000sheep and goats, and 40,000 swine, but this was only a quarter of the totalnumber of these animals slaughtered in prewar Japan (in 1941); the country'smilk production dropped to 43,000,000 gallons of fresh milk, or less than 50percent of the quantity recorded 4 years earlier. Usually, the establishmentshad the facilities to produce satisfactory products, but the state of repair inequipment and the nature of processing procedures were such that the outputfrequently failed to meet minimal modern sanitary requirements. In theslaughterhouses and meat plants, the Japanese veterinary ante mortem and postmortem inspections were conducted efficiently, but there was no inspection insubsequent meat processing procedures nor were refrigerated facilitiesavailable. The cattle slaughter included large numbers of animals that hadoutlived their usefulness on the farms for draft purposes or as milk producers.Diseases causing condemnations of slaughter animals included actinomycosis,cysticercosis, and distomatosis. In regard to the milk plants, only a smallpart of their production was pasteurized-or actuallyboiled-and there was littlelaboratory control over the product or during its production. The raw milksupply was required to originate from cattle tested and found free oftuberculosis, but the herds, including goats, were not tested for brucellosisunless such tests were requested by the herd owner concerned. Official bacterialstandards and butter fat content were prescribed for four types of fresh milk:special, ordinary, manufacturing, and goat milk.
The Japanese veterinarylaboratory service was found to be adequate, with greater part of it undergovernment control. There were only a few privately owned laboratories. TheMinistry of Agriculture and Forestry operated clinicodiagnostic andbiologic-producing laboratories in the prefectures, while the Ministry ofHealth and Social Affairs controlled the food analytical laboratories. Theformer agency, through its own Veterinary Laboratory Section, also establishedresearch programs on the diagnosis, treatment, and preventive measures of animaldiseases, whereas a similar program relating to the sanitary control of foodswas conducted in the Laboratory of Veterinary Hygiene, Institute of InfectiousDiseases, which operated under the supervision of the Tokyo Imperial University.
Korea
Postwar Korea, or Chosen, asthis country was called in 1910 when annexed by Japan, was planned by the Alliesfor development into an independent sovereign state. Its Allied militaryoccupation was begun in September 1945 when Russian troops entered Korea abovethe 38th Parallel and American occupational troops under control of the XXIVCorps entered Seoul and the southern area of Korea. The XXIV Corps, laterbecoming the U.S. Army Forces in Korea, was responsible to GHQ, SCAP. This
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occupation of South Koreawas terminated soon after the new Republic of Korea was proclaimed (in August1948), but the Soviet occupation zone developed another political entity atabout this late date so that the wartime Allies' objective for a postwar,single Korean state was not reached.
At the start of the Americanoccupation, Headquarters, XXIV Corps, had its own military government staffsection which became the Office of Military Governor, U.S. Army Forces in Korea;by January 1946, CA/MG operations were centered in the newly organized U.S.Army Military Government in Korea, with headquarters located at Seoul (10, 17,18). The XXIV Corps Veterinarian originally acted as military government adviseron veterinary affairs in Korea, but, by December 1945, five veterinary officershad arrived for primary duty assignment with the military governmentorganization; other officers were added later. This personnel comprised theVeterinary Department, which was established within the organization of thePublic Health and Welfare Bureau, Headquarters, U.S. Army Military Government inKorea, and those who were placed on duty with the eight provincial militarygovernment organizations. They were concerned with the control of animaldiseases, meat and dairy hygiene inspections, civil veterinary education,laboratory activities and research, and the supply of professional materiel.These civil affairs activities were directly controlled and supervised byVeterinary Corps officers during the early occupation period because theJapanese veterinarians who had once occupied key positions in the Koreanveterinary organization now were being repatriated or returned to Japan.Summarizing, the veterinary situation here more or less paralleled that observedin the occupation of Germany where denazification procedures had removed theprincipal veterinarians from the German civil administration, but it wasmaterially different from that in Japan where military government operatedthrough the existent Japanese civil administration. Later, of course, asKorean veterinarians were brought into a training program and assumedself-governing responsibilities, the Army veterinary officers gradually changedtheir duties to that of only advising and assisting in Korean veterinarycivilian affairs.
Civil veterinaryservices.-The civilian veterinary profession in Korea at the start of theoccupation approximated a thousand members, but many of these were graduates ofthe 10 or more agricultural schools having veterinary departments that lackedthe facilities and faculties necessary for the proper education ofveterinarians. The profession's efficiency was further reduced by the shortagesin supplies and the losses of Japanese veterinarians who were being repatriatedby Japan. In the early civil affairs programs for South Korea, the ArmyVeterinary Service sought to improve the veterinary educational activities,particularly at the new Seoul National University where Army Veterinary Corpsofficers were assigned as instructors (fig. 47). Also, Korean veterinarianswere trained at various echelons of civil government to replace the Japanese whohad once controlled almost
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all veterinary affairs inKorea. Before these programs got underway, however, the American militarygovernor provided for the organization of a provincial national government andthe reestablishment of governmental veterinary services under a new KoreanBureau of Public Health.
Korea's livestockpopulation, in 1943, totaled 35,000 to 50,000 cattle (of which only 2,000 wereof the dairy type), one-half million each of sheep and goats, more than amillion hogs, and several million chickens and rabbits. No animal censusregarding South Korea was reported, although it may be noted that the Japanesehad slaughtered many animals during the last few years of the war. Dogs, onceimportant in the supply of food and fur clothing, were totally destroyed,pursuant to a Japanese directive of 1945; also, the former Japanese-ownedpoultry raising centers about Seoul and Pusan were now practically nonexistent.In the regulation of animal diseases, Japanese laws and regulations were usedthroughout Korea; in the military occupation period, the Koreans were directedto continue
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them. The more seriousanimal diseases in Korea included actinomycosis, anthrax, blackleg, fowl pest,glanders, rabies, rinderpest, and tuberculosis. Anthrax and blackleg werecontrolled by the conduct of annual vaccination programs in the enzootic areas,and fowl pest was controlled to a moderate extent by the use of a locallydeveloped chicken-tissue vaccine, administered intravenously. Glanders andrinderpest-normally present in NorthKorea-were more or less avoided in theAmerican zone of occupation by the initiation of energetic controls. In theinstance of rinderpest, the threatened movement of cattle across rivers, whenfrozen over, at points where there were no regularly operating quarantinestations, brought recognition to this as a wintertime disease. In the periodfrom November 1945 through January 1946, all cattle located in a geographicarea, 10-15 miles wide, immediately below the 38th Parallel were vaccinated witha killed tissue vaccine produced in a laboratory at Pusan. Research studies ona new rinderpest vaccine of rabbit-tissue origin were well advanced. Rabiesunfortunately appeared and became widespread during 1946, but the shortages inthe supply of rabies vaccine made impossible the reinstitution of diseasecontrols at the time. In fact, this as well as certain other biologicals andgeneral veterinary supplies were difficult to obtain because the Japanesesources were no longer available. Considerable efforts were directed towardlocating and distributing captured Japanese military stockpiles and forobtaining an early delivery of U.S. Army civil affairs materiel.
In regard to the Korean meatand dairy industries, such sanitary controls as existed were enforced bypolice authorities with the technical assistance of veterinarians, pursuant tooutdated laws and regulations. Approximately a tenth of the 1,500 abattoirs inKorea were city or provincial owned and were operated under the supervision ofveterinarians. There were only two milk pasteurizing plants (at Seoul and Pusan)in South Korea; but, other than the periodic testing of cattle for tuberculosis,there was no real sanitary control over the production from dairy farms and goatdairies. During the war years, 10 to 15 percent of the cattle, except nativecattle which were not required by law to be tested, were shown to be infectedwith tuberculosis.
References
l. AR 40-5,15 Jan. 1926.
2. FM 27-5, MilitaryGovernment, 30 July 1940.
3. FM 27-5/OPNAV 50E-3,United States Army and Navy Manual of Military Government and Civil Affairs,22 Dec. 1943.
4. Rushmore, Rowland W.:History of the Veterinary Service in Civil Affairs, Italy. [Official record.]
5. Frederiksen, Oliver J.:The American Military Occupation of Germany, 1945-53. Historical Division, HQ,USAFET, 1953. [Official record.]
6. Todd, Frank A., andCarter, Philip R.: History of the United States Army Veterinary Service inCivil Affairs/Military Government in the European Theater in World War II.[Official record.]
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7. Kester, Wayne O., andMiller, Everett B.: History of the U.S. Army Medical Department, VeterinaryService, United States Army Forces, Pacific Ocean Areas. [Official record.]
8. Seymour, Raymond T.:Veterinary History, Tenth Army (20 June 1944-15 October 1945). [Officialrecord.]
9. Letter, Maj. C. A.Woodhouse, VC, Philippine Civil Affairs Unit 21, to Brig. Gen. R. A. Kelser,Chief, Veterinary Division, SGO, 16 Dec. 1944.
10. Dixon, Oness H., Jr.:History of Veterinary Civil Affairs in Japan and Korea. [Official record.]
11. Public Health andWelfare Technical Bulletin, TB-PH-VET 1, GHQ, SCAP, February 1947.
12. Memorandum, PublicHealth and Welfare Section, GHQ, SCAP, to the Imperial Japanese Government, 30Oct. 1945, subject: Information on Japanese Animal Disease Control.
13. Letter, Public Healthand Welfare Section, GHQ, SCAP, to CG, Eighth U.S. Army, 18 Mar. 1946, subject:Animal Disease Control.
14. Memorandum, PublicHealth and Welfare Section, GHQ, SCAP, for information of all concerned,subject: Information of General Application Pertaining to Directive Number(SCAPIN-214), 30 Oct. 1945, subject: Information on Japanese Animal DiseaseControl.
15. Public Health andWelfare Technical Bulletin, TB-PH-VET 2, GHQ, SCAP, 22 Nov. 1946.
16. Public Health andWelfare Technical Bulletin, TB-PH-VET 3, GHQ, SCAP, December 1946.
17. Essential TechnicalMedical Data, USAFPAC, for November 1945 through June 1946.
18. Weekly bulletins, PublicHealth and Welfare Section, GHQ, SCAP.
