CHAPTER I
Enemy Ordnance Materiel
Maj. James C. Beyer, MC, Maj. James K. Arima, MSC,
and Doris W. Johnson
In conducting a casualty survey to getinformation for a study on wound ballistics, it is imperative that the membersof a survey team be cognizant of the types and capabilities of enemy ordnancemateriel. To facilitate the collection of such data and to recognize andevaluate the wounding potential of enemy missiles, the medical personnel of sucha survey team should be familiar with enemy weapons and missile types and theirballistic properties. This information is necessary to evaluate completelyexternal and internal wound characteristics and concomitant tissue and organdamage. If an ordnance officer is included as a member of the team, thecollection and dissemination of pertinent information on enemy ordnancecharacteristics is greatly facilitated. Such information is vital to medicalpersonnel both in making the study itself and in developing ballistic protectivedevices, such as helmets and body armor. During the preliminary research stagesbefore the adoption of body armor in the Korean War, casualty surveys conductedunder the guidance of the U.S. Army Medical Service and other technical servicesestablished the priority of body areas to receive protection, determined themost commonly encountered wounding agents, and fixed the criteria for minimumprotection in terms of ballistic properties.
In addition to these medical applications, wound-ballisticstudies can be of value to ordnance technical intelligence personnel in theirevaluation of enemy weapons and to ordnance engineers in their design of newweapons. Conversely, any casualty survey conducted among enemy casualties canfurnish vital information regarding the effectiveness of friendly small arms andartillery.
During World War II, casualty surveys conducted onBougainville, New Georgia, and Burma correlated the missile casualty and hiswounds with the type of causative agent. The Bougainville report (p. 289),especially, contained an excellent analysis of the Japanese weapons used in theBougainville area. Unfortunately, none of the casualty surveys from the Europeanand Mediterranean Theaters of Operations contained similar information forGerman weapons. Therefore, much of the following material had to be abstractedfrom various manuals and reports which contained excellent descriptions of
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the external and internal details of the weapons and theirmechanics of operation but often failed to consider their casualty-producingproperties.
Before proceeding with the descriptions of enemy materiel, adefinition of some of the technical vocabulary of the ordnance expert and theofficer of the line is presented for the benefit of the reader who may be quiteunfamiliar with these terms. This presentation will serve the double purpose ofmaking the subsequent material easier to understand for the uninitiated reader,and it will define our use of the terms to the expert who may have for each manyconnotative shades of meanings.
Blowback operated.-The operating principle of a weaponwhich uses the force of gases expanding to the rear against the face of the boltto furnish all energy necessary for the bolt to extract the expended cartridgeand to reload and fire another. This type of weapon is said to fire from an openbolt because the bolt is held to rear when the weapon is cocked. The bolt loadsand fires the cartridge when the trigger is pulled. Blowback-operated weaponsare not positively locked at the moment of firing, but the bolt is held closedeither by its own weight or its weight plus that of a heavy recoil spring orsome other mechanical system, such as a trigger joint, until the bullet has leftthe bore and breech pressures have dropped.
Cyclic rate of fire.-The rate at which a weapon firesautomatically, expressed in terms of shots per minute; synonymous with maximumrate when the period of measure is 1 minute.
Effective rate of fire.-The rate at which a weapon maybe expected to fire accurately in actual use and with due consideration for theprevention of damage to the weapon by overheating resulting from an excessiverate of fire and the time required to reload the weapon.
Gas operated.-The operating principle of aweapon which uses the force of expanding gases passed through an opening in thebarrel to a separate gas cylinder to operate the extracting, reloading, andcocking phases. The breech is locked at the time of firing, which may besemiautomatic or automatic. There may be gas ports in the cylinder to controlthe amount of gases entering it, and a piston encased in the cylinder operatesthe bolt. The rate of fire is, accordingly, controllable to some extent inweapons with adjustable gas ports.
Hollow charge.-A hollow, cone-shaped arrangement of thecharge in shells designed to concentrate the explosive force in one direction; ashaped charge.
Hotchkiss machinegun.-A simple, air-cooled,gas-operated automatic machinegun developed by the Societ? Anonyme des AnciensEtablissements, Hotchkiss et Cie., of France and England, from an originaldesign by Capt. Baron Adolph von Odkolek, Austrian Army, in 1895. A port drilledthrough the barrel a few calibers from the muzzle communicated with a cylinderattached below the barrel and housing a piston. When the projectile passed theport, expanding gases entered the cylinder and forced the piston to the rearuntil the gases escaped through an exhaust port. The compressed mainspring,working directly on the gas piston, returned it to its original position. The
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bolt, itself, was similar to that of an ordinaryhand-operated rifle, only in this case, the operating rod (piston) connected toit did all the work. Ammunition was fed in metal strips. The Czech ZB 26 (Brno)was a modification and improvement of these principles. The Brno was widelycopied by the Japanese, Germans, and British. In British terminology, the nameappeared as Bren, and in German parlance, Brunn.
Lewis machinegun.-A light, air-cooled, gas-operatedautomatic machine-gun developed by Col. Isaac N. Lewis, U.S. Army, in 1911, withthe Automatic Arms Co., Buffalo, N.Y. The gun featured a pinion gear whicharticulated with the racked underside of the gas piston. A clock-type windingspring was mounted inside the pinion. The entire pinion and spring mechanism wasmounted inside a casing on the pistol-grip, trigger-housing unit. The gas pistonand bolt traveling to the rear extracted the spent cartridge, positioned a newcartridge, and wound the spring, which provided the energy for the loading andfiring phases. Thus, the operating spring was located out of the way ofreciprocating parts; it was easily accessible; changes in rate of fire could bemade even while firing; and the separate housing kept it free of dirt, water, orother damaging elements. Because ammunition was fed from a 47- or 96-cartridgedrum mounted flat on the gun, one man could operate the Lewis machinegun.Accordingly, it found great use in World War I and immediately thereafter asaircraft armament.
Maxim machinegun.-The first automatic machinegun wasinvented by an American, Hiram Maxim, in 1884. It was recoil operated and beltfed. The barrel recoiled three-quarters of an inch on a forward and rearbearing. This recoil operated the feeding belt and imparted the energy necessaryfor the bolt to free itself from the barrel, travel to the rear, fully extendthe driving spring, and compress the firing-pin spring. The counterrecoilingbolt, actuated by the extended spring, ejected the spent cartridge, firmlygrasped and chambered the cartridge to be fired, locked the bolt with thebarrel, and freed the firing pin. Starting in 1888, Vickers Sons and Maxim, Ltd.produced the Maxim machinegun in great quantity until, eventually, theproduction model became better known as the "Vickers."
Maximum rate of fire.-The rate at which a weapon firesautomatically and continuously; cyclic rate of fire when the period of measureis 1 minute.
Muzzle velocity.-The speed of a projectile atthe instant it leaves the muzzle of a gun; a function of the amount and type ofpropellent charge, the length of the barrel, and the weight of the projectile.
Recoil operated.-The operating principle of aweapon which uses the energy of recoil to operate the extracting, reloading, andcocking phases. The weapon may be semiautomatic or automatic. The breech islocked at the moment of firing; the barrel and bolt assembly move to the reartogether with the recoil and separate later.
Setback.-The rearward (relative) jerk, caused byinertia, of free-moving parts in a projectile when it is fired. This force maybe used to push back a spring or plunger to start operation of a time fuze.
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Shaped charge.-An explosive charge shaped so that theexplosive energy is focused and concentrated to move in one direction, thusgiving the projectile greater penetration. A hollow-cone charge is one form of ashaped charge.
JAPANESE ORDNANCE
The reader must realize, in considering Japanese ordnance,that Japan was one of the last countries to shed the cloak of feudal times andpartake of the discoveries of the industrial revolution. For some 200 years, thefeudal lords of Japan had handcuffed the Emperor and had closed Japan to allforeigners. At the time when the sanguinary Civil War was being fought inAmerica, the only guns known to the Japanese were antiquated pistols, muskets,and cannon which had been obtained from the few Dutch who were permitted totrade at one of Japan's southern ports or the even more primitive weaponswhich had been obtained from earlier European explorers and traders before theperiod of self-imposed exile. When this period of feudal isolation was endedwith the restoration to the throne of Emperor Meiji in 1867, the Japanese setout with fervent zeal to catch up with the rest of the world which had passedthem by.
One of Japan's first considerations was to build up herarmed forces. The still-revered traditions and code of the warrior were greatassets toward this end and stood the Mikado's forces in good stead even aslate as World War II. By 1895, Japan had already fought the Chinese, oftenmentioned as the inventors of gunpowder, and had annexed Formosa and thePescadores. In 1904, Japan saw fit to engage Imperial Russia in war. A littlemore than a year later, the entire Russian fleet was destroyed at the Battle ofTsushima Bay-one of the major naval disasters of modern times until the UnitedStates and her Allies were able to turn the tables in the Pacific battles ofWorld War II. By 1905, in the 38th year of the reign of Emperor Meiji, theJapanese had already developed and were manufacturing a basic rifle for itsground soldiers which was quite comparable to the then new U.S. Springfield,M1903. This model 38 rifle was the mainstay of Japanese troops during World WarII. With her nearly constant warfare against the Chinese for some 50 years, withwars and skirmishes against Imperial and Soviet Russia over a period nearly aslong, and with her participation in World War I on the side of the Allies, Japanhad gained extensive knowledge in the arts of modern warfare. Whilecircumstances dictated that her weapons be copies of those used by the world'sleading powers, they were modified to suit her needs, and the Emperor'sarsenals were quite complete with the gamut of modern weapons at the time of thedastardly strike at Pearl Harbor.
In evaluating both the weapons to be described and thecasualty surveys which form later chapters of this volume, the reader shouldbear in mind that the Japanese Army was built around the foot soldier, just asthe armies of the feudal lords of a not too distant past. Accordingly, thedesign of Japanese
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weapons featured lightness and mobility. Supporting weaponswere specifically designed as aids to the infantry. Tactical doctrine specifiedthat the aim of all battle was for the foot soldier to engage the enemy andcompletely annihilate him. In offense or defense, the aggressiveness of thefeudal warrior was the keynote, even to the extent of the final banzai raid whenall was hopelessly lost.
This overdevotion to aggressive conduct of battle andadherence to the role of the infantrymen predominated in the consideration of anoverall weapons system, and many forms of weapons were sacrificed orunderdeveloped because of this concept. Thus, the weapons of the infantrymenwere well developed and quite adequate to the extent that the mortars of theJapanese Army were more numerous in kind and number than in any of the armiesengaged in World War II. At the same time, considerably less attention was givento larger artillery pieces, to AA (antiaircraft) artillery, and to AT (antitank)weapons.
The theme of lightness is quite evident when Japanese weaponsare compared with the comparable U.S. weapons of World War II. The bore ofJapanese rifle was 0.256 inch, while the United States had used an 0.30-inchbore for years. American submachineguns fired snub-nosed 0.45-inch bullets,while the Japanese guns fired 0.315-inch missiles. The same was generally trueof pistols. The standard caliber of Japanese light machineguns was, as was thatof the rifles and carbines, 0.256 inch, which corresponded to the American lightmachinegun of 0.30 inch. Japanese heavy machineguns, however, equalled in boresizes those used by the U.S. Army. A similar analogy can be made with artillery.The basic gun of the Japanese infantry division, as encountered by the Allies incombat, was 75 mm. Division artillery of U.S. infantry divisions was 105 and 155mm. Only in mortars did the Japanese foot soldier possess both smaller andlarger bores at the advent of World War II. The most commonly encounteredJapanese mortars were 81 and 90 mm. Standard U.S. mortars used by the infantrywere 60 and 81 mm.
Another consideration in the Japanese design of lighter,smaller weapons was the combat for which they were designed. The weapons wereadapted to the use of unmotorized units chasing inadequately armed Chinese overgreat expanses of countryside; they were particularly useful in jungle fightingand in the type of terrain which was encountered throughout most of the earlierfighting in the Pacific. An omen which was insufficiently heeded, or which couldnot be followed through, was the definite inadequacy of these weapons in moreconventional warfare as pointed out in large-scale border skirmishes againstSoviet forces in northern Manchuria and Siberia just before World War II. As thewar progressed from the smaller islands and isolated areas of the Pacific andmoved ever closer to the homeland, Japan had to manufacture larger bore weaponsand better AA artillery and AT guns. But, by this time, Allied bombers had takentheir toll of Japan's manufacturing potential.
While Japanese infantry weapons ultimately reached bore sizesclose to
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those used by U.S. forces, Japan developed but never produceda semiautomatic rifle or automatic carbine; hence, the Japanese soldier couldnot match the tremendous advantage in firepower which the American soldier heldover him. Japanese artillery never reached the stage where it could lay downmassed fires and rolling barrages as did U.S. artillery. It still remained aimedfire or, at most, point fire at the close of the war. It is doubtful whetherJapanese logistics could have ever supplied the ammunition for such weapons orartillery practices, had they been feasible. As it was, the last months of WorldWar II found the Japanese using mortars improvised from whatever was available,and captured documents explained in detail how such improvisations could be madeby units in the field. More than 5 years after the Japanese surrender, theUnited States was to rediscover in Korea that these same Japanese weapons in thehands of Chinese Communists were still quite effective.
Edged Weapons, Hand Actuated
Although bayonets were attached to most Japanese rifles,they were not considered a primary cause of wounds. Among the 2,335 casualtiesstudied in the Bougainville campaign, only 2 were listed as having had woundscaused by this weapon. A New Georgia-Burma casualty survey unit studied 393casualties. Of 319 of these casualties that required hospitalization or thatwere killed in action, there were only 3 bayonet-wound cases. Two of these wereaccidentally inflicted with a U.S. bayonet, and in the third case the bayonetwound was secondarily inflicted following primary small arms wounds to the lowerextremities. Notwithstanding this relatively small sampling of the total U.S.casualties incurred against the Japanese forces, it would appear that thebayonet was not a major, primary wound-producing weapon and that most bayonetand knife wounds were secondarily inflicted following a primary-missile wound.Infantry personnel through their personal experiences could probably reveal somevariations as to the comparative effectiveness of bayonets and knives, but, ingeneral, edged weapons were relegated to secondary functions.
Small Arms
Pistols and revolvers.-Japanese ground forces utilizedseveral models of an 8 mm. semiautomatic pistol and of one obsolescent 9 mm.revolver. The Japanese Nambu, 8 mm. (0.315 in.) semiautomatic pistol, was namedfor its inventor, Col. Kijiro Nambu, and before 1925 was the standard sidearm inthe Japanese Army. The weapon was recoil operated and magazine fed with the8-round magazine fitting into the butt similar to the U.S. service automatic,caliber .45. Notwithstanding its independent development by the Japanese, thepistol had a superficial resemblance to the German Luger automatic. Originally,a separate shoulder stock was issued which, when attached to the butt of thepistol, enabled it to be used as a light carbine.
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The Nambu used an 8 mm. bottlenecked semirimless cartridge.Its muzzle velocity was about 950 f.p.s. (feet per second) with maximum ranges,published in several sources, varying between 547 and 1,400 yards. Effectiverange was from 50 to 75 yards.
A 7 mm. (0.276 in.) model was also manufactured andrepresented a scaledown version of the 8 mm. model.
In 1925, the Model 14, 8 mm. semiautomatic pistol (fig. 1),replaced the Nambu as the standard sidearm and represented a further developmentof the earlier model. The Model 14 possessed a few external and internalmodifications which facilitated the mass production of the weapon, but it usedthe same type of ammunition as, and had ballistic characteristics similar to,the Nambu.
FIGURE 1.-Model 14 (1925) 8 mm. pistol.
The Model 94 (1934) 8 mm. semiautomatic pistol was of laterdesign and manufacture, but it was considered inferior to the Model 14 (1925) inmanufacturing quality and pointing properties. A dangerous feature of this modelwas that the weapon could discharge following rough handling without anymanipulation of the trigger. It used the same type of 8 mm. ammunition as theNambu and Model 14 pistols and had ballistic characteristics standard to thistype of cartridge.
Submachineguns.-The basic design of Japanesesubmachineguns closely resembled corresponding German weapons as was welldemonstrated in the standard 8 mm. submachinegun, Type 100 (1940). The Japanesehad two modifications of this gun. The early model was designated theParatrooper's Submachine Gun and was a light, blowback, bolt-action operatedautomatic weapon which fired the regular issue bottlenecked 8 mm. pistolcartridge. The
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stock was cut through and hinged just behind the receiver andcould be swung forward to lie parallel with the barrel. The curved box magazinehad a capacity of 30 rounds, and the gun had an estimated cyclic rate of fire of400 to 1,000 rounds per minute. The muzzle velocity was about 1,100 f.p.s.
The later model (fig. 2) differed from the Paratrooper'sModel 100 in the absence of the folding stock, fixation of the rear sight,alteration in the bayonet fixture, and some minor modifications in the principleof operation. It had a straight blowback operation, and the curved box magazineheld 30 rounds of standard 8 mm. pistol ammunition. The estimated cyclic rate offire was from 800 to 1,000 rounds per minute with a muzzle velocity of nearly1,100 f.p.s.
FIGURE 2.-Model 100 (1940) 8 mm.submachinegun, late model.
Rifles and carbines.-Japanese rifles and carbinesdeveloped for ground troops before 1939 were 6.5 mm. (0.256 in.) in caliber(fig. 3), while the models issued after that date showed a trend toward a 7.7mm. (0.303 in.) rifle. At one time, the Model 38 (1905) (Arisaka) 6.5 mm. riflewas the basic Japanese infantry weapon, and it continued to be used during WorldWar II despite the development of other models. This weapon was a modifiedMauser-type rifle with a manually operated bolt action and was designed to fireammunition of medium velocity. Its length was 50.39 inches without bayonet, andit weighed only 9 to 9? pounds without sling or bayonet. The mechanism of Model38 was strong and sturdy, and, in its action, it was very similar to the U.S.rifle, M1903 (Springfield). Two noteworthy characteristics of the Model 38 werethe slight amount of recoil and the minimal muzzle flash. The Arisaka firedball, tracer, or a reduced-charge (practice) ball-type ammunition with a muzzlevelocity of 2,400 to 3,000 f.p.s. and had an extreme range of over 4,000 yards.The rifle's effective range was from 400 to 500 yards.
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FIGURE 3.-Model 38 (1905) 6.5 mm. rifle,showing bolt open and rear sight leaf up.
A carbine, Model 38 (1905), was also produced with the sameoperating mechanism as the rifle, Model 38. It, however, was only 38 inches longand and weighed about 7? pounds. It was equipped to hold the Model 30 bayonetand, like the rifle, was magazine fed from a 5-round clip. The ammunition was ofthe Model 38, 6.5 mm. ball and reduced-charge (practice) ball types. Muzzlevelocity and maximum range were slightly less than for the Model 38 riflebecause of the decreased barrel length.
Another carbine model which evolved from the Model 38 wasdesignated the Model 44 (1911) 6.5 mm. cavalry carbine. It had the same boltaction, trigger mechanism, and receiver as the Model 38 rifle, but the bayonetwas of the permanently attached folding type. The carbine, with bayonet folded,measured 383~ inches and weighed about 8? pounds.
A sniper's rifle, Model 97 (1937), was also based on theModel 38 rifle and had a folding monopod, turned-down bolt handle, andtelescopic sight.
In some of the battle areas during World War II, the Model 99(1939) 7.7 mm. (0.303 in.) rifle began to replace the Model 38 (1905) as thebasic Japanese infantry weapon. While still a manually operated, bolt-action,5-round-clip weapon, it was only 44 inches long and weighed approximately 8?pounds. In addition, it had a folding monopod, AA leading sight arms, and a handguard extending to the front end of the stock. It used 7.7 mm. Model 99 (1939)rimless ball-type ammunition with the projectile weighing 181 grains. The muzzlevelocity was about 2,390 f.p.s., with a maximum
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range estimated between 3,000 and 4,500 yards and aneffective range of 450 to 600 yards.
Two modifications of the Model 99 were the paratrooper rifle,Model 99, and the paratrooper rifle, Model 2 (1942). Both weapons had the sameoperating mechanism and utilized the same ammunition as the parent rifle butwere designed to incorporate a takedown feature which facilitated their use byparatroop units.
Machineguns.-One of the earlier types of Japanese lightmachineguns which saw service in World War II was the Model 11 (1922) 6.5 mm.machinegun. This weapon derived its model number from the fact that it wasissued in 1922, the 11th year after the accession of Emperor Taisho in 1911. Thegun was patterned after the Czech Brno machinegun and was gas operated withautomatic fire only. One of its distinguishing characteristics was the feedhopper on the left side which held six 5-round rifle clips of Model 38, 6.5 mm.ball ammunition. The muzzle velocity was between 2,300 and 2,400 f.p.s., with amaximum range of over 4,000 yards and an effective range between 600 and 800yards. The cyclic rate of fire was 500 rounds per minute and the effective ratefrom 120 to 150 rounds per minute.
The more commonly encountered 6.5 mm. light machinegun wasthe Model 96 (1936) (fig. 4). This model, like the Model 11, followed the CzechBrno principle of operation and also had its outwardappearance. It was still a gas-operated automatic weapon, but the feedingdevice was improved to accommodate a curved box holding 30 rounds of the Model38 reduced-charge ball tracer ammunition. The rate of fire was increased to amaximum rate of 550 rounds per minute and an effective rate of 120 to 150 roundsper minute.
FIGURE 4.-Model 96 (1936) 6.5 mm. lightmachinegun.
One model of a 6.5 mm. heavy machinegun recovered in smallnumbers from the Pacific battle area, Model 3 (1914), contained many parts whichcould be interchanged with the 7.7 mm. heavy machinegun, Model 92 (1932).
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Because of a smaller feedport, however, the Model 3 could notbe converted to fire 7.7 mm. ammunition. It was a gas-operated,air-cooled automatic weapon, and its feeding device consisted of metal stripscontaining 30 rounds of Model 38, 6.5 mm. ball ammunition. The muzzle velocitywas 2,434 f.p.s., with a maximum range of 4,376 yards and an effective range of1,500 yards. It had a rather low cyclic rate of fire of 450 to 500 rounds perminute and a practical rate of 200 rounds per minute.
Following the trend from the 6.5 mm. (0.256 in.) to the 7.7mm. (0.303 in.) weapon, the 7.7 mm. light machinegun, Model 99 (1939), wasdeveloped from the 6.5 mm. Model 96. Basically, the two weapons were identicalin principle of operation and feeding, but the Model 99 used the 7.7 mm. rimlessball ammunition. The muzzle velocity was around 2,300 f.p.s., with a maximumrange of 3,800 to 4,500 yards and an effective range of 600 to 1,000 yards. Thecyclic rate of fire was from 550 to 850 rounds per minute. The effective ratewas from 120 to 250 rounds per minute.
A modification of the Czech Brno gun was issued as theJapanese Model 97 (1937) 7.7 mm. tank machinegun. This was a gas-operated,air-cooled automatic weapon that was designed for a tank mount but was availablewith conventional sights and a bipod so that it could be used from groundpositions. A vertical box magazine held 30 rounds of Model 99, 7.7 mm.rimless-type ammunition, and the cyclic rate of fire was approximately 500rounds per minute.
The standard Japanese 7.7 mm. heavy machinegun for groundforces consisted of two models, the Model 92 (1932) and the Model 01(1941).Model 92 was a modified Hotchkiss-type, gas-operated, air-cooled automaticweapon with a metal-strip feeding device holding 30 rounds. It used Model 92,7.7 mm. semirimmed ball, AP (armor-piercing), and tracer ammunition. Model 99,7.7 mm. rimless-type ammunition could be used if loaded in strips. The muzzlevelocity was estimated at 2,400 f.p.s., with a maximum range of 4,587 yards andan effective range of 1,500 yards. Normal cyclic rate of fire was from 450 to500 rounds per minute, and the effective rate was from 150 to 250 rounds perminute.
The Model 01 (1941) was a direct modification of the Model 92(1932) with the primary changes involving the overall dimensions and weight ofthe weapon. A total reduction in weight of approximately 41 pounds was made inthe gun and tripod mount, and the barrel was shorter, with a resultant decreasein muzzle velocity. Both guns used the 30-round metal-strip feeding device, butthe Model 01 used rimless ball, tracer, and AP ammunition.
A 7.7 mm. machinegun of the standard Lewis design wasidentified in several areas and was standard in the Japanese Navy. Thismachinegun, Model 92 (1932), had the Lewis gas-operated system and used a47-round drum as the feeding device. It fired the 7.7 mm. rimmed Navyammunition, which was the same as the British .303. Muzzle velocity was 2,400f.p.s., with a maximum range of 4,000 yards or more and an effective range of500 yards. The cyclic rate of fire was 600 rounds per minute.
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With the strafing of ground troops by enemy aircraft, theidentification of aircraft-type machineguns was of some value. The following isa list of some of the major models:
1. Model 89 (1929), a 7.7 mm. fixed aircraft machinegun. Thisgun was a copy of the British Mark V (caliber .303 Vickers-Maxim type).
2. Model 98 (1938), a 7.92 mm. flexible aircraft machinegun.Certain principles of design and operation not seen previously in Japaneseweapons were employed in this gun, which actually was the German MG 15manufactured in Japan. It had a cyclic rate of fire of approximately 1,000rounds per minute.
3. A 12.7 mm. (0.50 in.) fixed aircraft machinegun which wasa close copy of the U.S. .50 caliber Browning aircraft machinegun, M1921.
Grenade Dischargers
The grenade discharger was designed for use by the individualsoldier and served to extend the range of the hand grenade as an intermediaryweapon approaching the true mortars. It had a curved baseplate which made itappear as though it could be fired while the weapon was resting on a part of thehuman body and, therefore, was frequently, but incorrectly, referred to as the"knee mortar." Actually, the baseplate was made to fit over a treetrunk or a log or to be stuck into soft earth. The weapon was never intended tobe fired while resting against the thigh, as some gullible individualsdiscovered to their dismay.
The 50 mm. grenade discharger, Model 10 (1921), was a steel,smoothbore weapon with an overall length of 20 inches, a barrel length of 9?inches, and a total weight of 5? to 5? pounds. The ammunition, a Model 91 handgrenade with safety pin removed or a pyrotechnic grenade, was inserted into themuzzle. Upon pulling an external trigger lever, the propellent train wasignited. The setback activated and armed the fuze. With the Model 91 handgrenade, the estimated range was from 65 to 250 yards.
In 1929, the Japanese perfected the 50 mm. Model 89 grenadedischarger which was an improvement over the Model 10. The discharger had anoverall length of 24 inches, the barrel measured 10 inches, and the total weightwas 10? pounds. A distinguishing feature of the barrel was its rifling. A Model89 HE (high explosive) shell was designed with a rotating band which expandedagainst the rifling. In addition, the Model 91 hand grenade could be used asammunition. The Model 89 HE shell had a range of 131 to 710 yards, and the Model91 hand grenade had a range of 44 to 208 yards.
Mortars
Intermediate between the grenade dischargers and moreconventional mortar designs was the 70 mm. mortar, Model 11 (1922). This weaponhad a rifled tube and fired an HE projectile of the same design as that used inthe Model
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89 grenade discharger. The propellent charge was contained within the baseof the projectile, and firing was accomplished by the impact of a percussion hammer against the firing pin. The weapon had an approximate range of1,700 yards.
The most commonly encountered Japanese mortars were 81 mm. and 90 mm., and they were very similarin appearance to the U.S. 81 mm. mortar, M1. Among the 81 mm. mortars were two models, Model 97 (1937) and Model99 (1939). The Model 97, 81 mm. mortar (fig. 5) was operated in the same manner as the U.S. 81 mm. mortar and used an HE shell, Model100, weighing 7.52 pounds. The shell was also similar in appearance to the U.S.81 mm. M43A1 mortar shell. Model 99 was a smoothbore mortar which weighed only52 pounds but was found to fire a 7.2-pound shell approximately 2,200 yards. Theprojectile for Model 99 was again similar to the U.S. M43A1 ammunition, and thetwo forms were found to be interchangeable. One distinguishing feature of theModel 99 mortar was a movable firing pin which was brought into action bystriking a firing-pin camshaft with a mallet.
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Of the 90 mm. mortars, the prototype was the Model 94(1934). This was a smoothbore, muzzle-loading weapon which was characterized byits heavy recoil mechanism. This mechanism furnished greater stability withhigher powder pressures but increased the weight of the weapon to 353 pounds.The mortar had a fixed firing pin and was fired in the same manner as the U.S.81 mm. mortar. Its HE rounds weighed 11.9 pounds. The approximate range was4,050 yards. A Model 97, 90 mm. mortar (fig. 6) was issued in 1937 and had thesame general appearance as the Model 97 (1937) 81 mm. mortar. It differed fromthe Model 94 mortar in the absence of the heavy recoil mechanism and tube reinforcing hoop and weighed 120 pounds less. Otherwise, it fired the sameammunition as the Model 94 and apparently had the
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same range. If instantaneous contact action was not required,a delay element could be placed in the nose of the fuze.
In addition to these commonly found mortars, the Japanese hadothers of conventional design in 120 and 150 mm. sizes with unconfirmedestimates of ranges as high as 5,000 yards. For sheer size, the Japanese had a320 mm. spigot mortar which fired a 674-pound shell. Ammunition for a 250 mm.spigot mortar reportedly produced a radius of burst of 273 yards. In thesemodels of the mortar, the Japanese principle of the heavy shell-that is,designing weapons to fire the largest possible shell from the lightest possibleweapon-was expressed in its most extreme form.
Artillery, Conventional Guns, and Howitzers
Because of her complete isolation for such a long period oftime, Japan ranked far behind other nations in the development of modernartillery weapons and tactics. Her artillery program was instituted in 1905 withthe production of two types of field guns and two types of howitzers. These wereidentical to, or modifications of, European designs, as was her artillery oflater times. As stated earlier in this chapter, Japanese models were invariablylighter than their foreign counterparts. This lightness was achieved by reducingthe weight of the tube, equilibrators, recoil system, and trails, which make upthe bulk of the weight of conventional artillery. Sometimes, this practiceresulted in a loss of range, and some accuracy was sacrificed. On theother hand, these sacrifices were more apparent than real. Most of the Japaneseartillery which was used in any great numbers was light artillery. Thesupporting function of artillery dictated that it be brought as far forward aspossible for employment. Furthermore, most of the fire was aimed fire which, atthe same time, had to be observed fire. Thus, the decrease in range with thelightening of the pieces was not a great loss. Because of the absence of modernfire-control and fire-direction methods, Japanese artillery used much time andmany rounds to register itself. It was not adequate for counterbattery, nor wascounterbattery a real mission of Japanese artillery. Since Japanese AA artillerywas also inadequate, the field artillery was very vulnerable to observation anddestruction from the air. Consequently, Japanese artillery did not fire longfrom any one position and was kept constantly on the move as a passive measureto protect it from hostile counterbattery and aircraft. The greater accuracywhich heavier equipment might have given was really not required when theregistration of pieces was accomplished as it was and when firing sites were sofrequently changed.
Japanese artillery, when it did fire, was deliberate andaccurate.
Table 1 presents a fairly comprehensive listing of Japaneseartillery which was used in World War II. Figure 7 shows one model of the75 mm. class and figure 8, one of 105 mm.
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TABLE 1.-Japanese guns and howitzers used in World War II
Weapon | Type | Caliber | Muzzle velocity | Maximum range |
Mm. | F.p.s. | Yards | ||
Model 97 (1937) | AT rifle | 20 | 2,640 | 5,450. |
Model 98 (1938) | AA/AT automatic cannon | 20 | 3,000 | 7,000. |
Model 96 (1936) | ...do... | 25 | 2,850 | 7,435. |
Model 11 (1922) | Infantry gun | 37 | 1,480 (HE) | |
Model 94 (1934) | ...do... | 37 | 2,330 (APHE) | 5,000. |
Model 97 (1937) | AT gun | 37 | 2,625 | 4,400. |
Model 1 (1941) | ...do... | 47 | 2,735 (HE) | 8,400. |
Model 92 (1932) | Howitzer | 70 | 650 | 3,060. |
Model 31 (1898) | Mountain gun | 75 | (1) | (1). |
Model 38 (1905) | Field gun | 75 | 1,670 (HE) | 9,000. |
Model 38 (1905) (Improved) | ...do... | 75 | 1,640 (HE) | 8,938 (HE) |
Model 41 (1908) | Mountain (infantry) gun | 75 | 1,160 | 7,000 (HE). |
Model 41 (1908) | Cavalry gun | 75 | 1,672 | 11,600. |
Model 90 (1930) | Mobile field gun | 75 | 2,296 | 16,350. |
Model 94 (1934) | Mountain (pack) gun | 75 | 1,285 (pointed) | 8,938 (pointed). |
Model 95 (1935) | Field gun | 75 | 1,700 (pointed) | 11,660 (pointed, HE). |
Model 14 (1925) | ...do... | 105 | 2,033 | 14,500. |
Model 38 (1905) | ...do... | 105 | 1,770 | 10,900. |
Model 91 (1931) | Howitzer | 105 | 1,450 (HE, pointed) | 11,500 (HE, pointed). |
Model 92 (1932) | Field gun | 105 | 2,500 (HE, pointed) | 20,000 (HE, pointed). |
Model 99 (1939) | Mountain howitzer | 105 | 1,150 | 6,000 (HE). |
Model 38 (1905) | Howitzer | 120 | 900 | 6,300. |
Model 38 (1905) | ...do... | 150 | 900 | 6,450. |
Model 4 (1915) | ...do... | 150 | 1,430 | 10,800 (HE, pointed). |
Model 45 (1912) | Heavy army artillery | 150 | 2,870 | 27,250. |
Model 89 (1929) | Heavy artillery | 150 | 2,250 | 21,800 to 27,450. |
Model 96 (1936) | Field gun | 150 | (1) | 28,400. |
Model 96 (1936) | Howitzer | 150 | 1,770 | 13,000 (HE, pointed). |
Model 45 (1912) | ...do... | 240 | 1,300 | 11,000. |
Model 90 (1930) | Railway gun | 240 | 3,440 | 54,600. |
Model 96 (1936) | Howitzer | 240 | (1) | 15,300. |
Model 7 (1918) | Short howitzer | 305 | (1) | 13,000. |
Model 7 (1918) | Long howitzer | 305 | (1) | 16,600. |
1Undetermined.
17
FIGURE 7.-Model 90 (1930) 75 mm. gun, withhigh-speed carriage.
FIGURE 8.-Model 91 (1931) 105 mm. howitzer.
Rocket Launchers
Japanese rockets and rocket launchers were of no great significance in World War II, although their development and production was rapid after they were introduced near the end of the conflict. Late models showed a strong German influence in their design. The early types of launchers for ground-to-ground rockets were crude metal or wood trough-shaped ramps of various lengths supported at the forward end by some simple form of bipod,
18
usually iron pipe. Through German influence, these modelswere replaced by the tube-type launcher, some of which were supported by a lighttwo-wheeled carriage with fixed metal frame. Rocket-assisted AA and aircraftmissiles were still in the experimental stage at the end of the war.
Ammunition
For small arms.-The Japanese made both good and badammunition for use in their small arms. One of their principal problems was tokeep the ammunition from "going bad" because of the dampness of thejungles. Much of the ammunition, especially grenades and mortar shells, wasruined because manufacturers tried to avoid waterproofing it. Good ammunition,often packed in flimsy crates, deteriorated through rough transportation and theinfluence of bad weather.
Small arms service ammunition (intended for actual combatuse) was classified according to type as follows: Ball, AP, tracer, incendiary,and explosive. The ball type, oldest of the service types, was intendedprimarily for use against personnel and light materiel targets. Originally, theammunition was shaped like a ball, but, with the advent of rifling in weapons,this ball was replaced by a cylindrically shaped bullet which would engage therifling. The AP cartridge was intended to be used against armored aircraft andvehicles, concrete shelters, and other bullet-resisting targets. Incendiarieswere used for incendiary purposes against aircraft and were sometimes combinedwith one or two of the other types. Tracers were intended to be used with othertypes to show the gunner, by their trace, the path of the bullets, thusassisting in correcting his aim.
The nose of most service rifle, carbine, and machinegunbullets was ogival (curved taper) and was round in those for pistols, revolvers,and submachineguns. The body in both types was cylindrical.
In the 6.5, 7.7, and 7.9 mm. classes, the Japanese had ball,AP, tracer, incendiary, and explosive types of ammunition. Ball, AP, and tracerswere used in ground guns, while incendiaries and explosives were aircraftammunition. There was also a ball ammunition with a core of mild steel, insteadof lead, which was mistakenly referred to as semi-armor-piercing ammunitionduring the war. During the closing stages of the Iwo Jima operation, however,some use was made by the Japanese of 7.7 mm. explosive incendiary bullets inground fighting. This condition became evident when some casualties were foundto have one wound of entry and several wounds of exit. An explanation for thisunusual condition was that aircraft ammunition may have been salvaged fromgrounded planes and air force depots and used when normal types of machinegunammunition were no longer available. Cupronickel, steel, brass, copper, or zincwere the metals used in projectile jackets with cupronickel being used mostoften. No steel jackets were reported in the 8 mm. Nambu pistol cartridge.
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The 6.5 mm. (0.256 in.) (fig. 9) bullet, especially onemade with a gilding metal (an alloy of copper and zinc) jacket, when it hit a target had an explosiveeffect and tended to separate, leaving theentire jacket in the wound while the bullet went on through. Small globules oflead scattered through the wound and embedded themselves elsewhere in theflesh. This condition was the result of the fact that the rear-sectionwalls of the bullet jacket, which was filled with a lead core, were thinner than the forward walls. The sudden stoppage ofthe high-velocity bullet whenit hit an object produced a tendency to burst the rear walls causing an "explosion."The lead core, which had a greater specific gravity, penetrated, leaving behind the relativelylighter jacketfrom which it had been discharged. The bullets made with cupronickel jacketshad more of a tendency to retain their lead cores because of the greater tensilestrength of the alloy when compared with the strength of thegilding-metal-jacketed bullet.
The unusually large exit wound openings often found withthis caliber bullet were due to the natural instability of the bullet and possibly to its being fired from inferior weapons. Similarly,there were elliptic entry wounds, a result of the "keyholing" effect ofbullets hitting with their sides.
Table 2 gives a description of small arms ammunition.Weights of projectiles in the table will vary somewhat from figure given inother sources. This is true because manufacturers did not always load thecartridge in exactly
FIGURE 9.-6.5 mm. ball ammunition.
20-21
TABLE 2. -Japanese small arms ammunition
Nomenclature | Caliber | Projectile | Weapons in which used | ||||
Milli- | Inches | Type construction | Core | Length | Weight | ||
Inches | Grains | ||||||
Model 381 | 6.5 | 0.256 | Ball | Lead | 1? | 138 | Model 38 rifles and carbines, Model 97 rifle, Model 44 carbine, Model 11 light machinegun, Model 96 light machinegun, Model 3 heavy machinegun. |
Tracer | ...do... | ||||||
Model 99 (rimless)2 | 7.7 | .303 | Ball | Lead | 1.23 | 181 | Model 99 rifle, Model 99 modified rifle, Model 2 rifle, Model 99 light machinegun, Model 97 tank machinegun, Model 92 heavy machinegun, Model 1 heavy machinegun. |
Tracer | ...do... | 1.23 | |||||
AP | Hard steel | 1.23 | |||||
Model 92 (Army semi-rimmed) | 7.7 | .303 | Ball | Lead | 125/64 | 203 | Model 92 heavy machinegun. |
Tracer | ...do... | 1? | 155 | ||||
AP | Hard steel | 129/64 | 162 | ||||
Incendiary | White phosphorus and lead | 1? | 162 | ||||
Aircraft machinegun4 (Navy rimmed). | 7.7 | .303 | HE | PETN3and lead | 1? | 162 | Model 92 heavy machinegun (Lewis type), Model 89 aircraft machinegun (Vickers type), Model 92 aircraft machinegun (Lewis type), Model 97 fixed aircraft machinegun (Vickers type). |
Ball | Lead | 19/32 | 173.6 | ||||
AP | Steel | 113/32 | |||||
Tracer | Lead | 113/32 | 130.4 | ||||
Incendiary | White phosphorus and lead | 113/32 | 133.2 | ||||
Aircraft machinegun | 7.92 | .312 | HE | PETN and lead | 121/64 | Bren light machinegun,5 Model 98 aircraft machinegun, Model 100 aircraft machinegun, Model 1 aircraft machinegun. | |
Ball | Lead | 17/16 | 180 | ||||
AP | Hard steel | 129/64 | 182 | ||||
Incendiary | White phosphorus and lead | 129/64 | 182 | ||||
HE | PETN and lead | ||||||
Pistol | 8 | .315 | Ball | Lead | 19/32 | 102 | Nambu, Model 14 and Model 94 pistols; Model 100 submachine gun. |
| Do | 9 | .354 | ...do... | ...do... | 5/8 |
| Model 26 revolver. |
Aircraft machinegun | 12.7 | .50 | ...do... | ...do... | Browning type aircraft machinegun, Model 1 (Browning type). | ||
AP tracer | Steel | 1? | 1.25 | Aircraft machinegun, Type 89. | |||
HE incendiary (fuzed Japanese).6 | PETN incendiary and steel | 17/8 | 1.21 | ||||
HE incendiary (fuzed Italian).6 | ...do... | 2 | 1.35 | ||||
HE incendiary (fuzeless). | ...do... | 2 | 1.16 | ||||
Tracer | Steel | ||||||
AP (Italian) | Lead tip, steel core | 215/64 | 1.35 | ||||
1A wood-bullet round was used with therifle to launch the rifle smoke grenade. A paper-bullet round was used to launchrifle grenades. The propelling powder used in the blank rounds wasnitrocellulose, while in the other rounds, it was graphite-coatednitrocellulose.
2In addition to the usual brass cartridge cases, ammunition with asteel case was found.
3The PETN (pentaerythritol tetranite) in the HE round was set off bythe heat of impact.
4Same as British .303.
5Bren light machineguns were captured from Chinese Nationalists.
6This ammunition was copied by the Japanese from the Italians. Of thetwo HE incendiary fuzed rounds, one was Italian and the other was a Japanesecopy of it. The Japanese HE incendiary fuze differed from the Italian round inthat the fuze used was of two-piece construction instead of one.
22
the same manner. Samples taken from different factory lotsshowed many slight variations.
For mortars.-Mortar shells were classified as HE,smoke, illuminating, practice, and training. However, only the HE type was ofany concern in producing casualties. These are shown in table 3.
During the war, the South Pacific Area detonated 5 rounds ofthe Type 89, 50 mm. grenade discharger shell, 5 rounds of the Type 100, 81 mm.mortar shell (fig. 10), and 4 rounds of the Type 94, steel 90 mm. mortar shellin order to determine the frequency distribution of fragments from thesemissiles. The shells were fired statically in a vertical position with theirnoses approximately 1 inch in the ground. Panels of Celotex, 4-feet high and?-inch thick, were placed in concentric circles with radii of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25,and 30 yards from the point of burst at the center. The panels in each circlecovered only one-sixth of the circumference, thus making it possible to arrangethem so that no panel obstructed any other panel in a circle of greatercircumference. The number of hits for each circle, had it been possible toenclose it completely with 4-feet-high Celotex panels, was extrapolated from thehits observed on the assumption that the distribution of fragments was random.The results are shown in table 4. If the mean projected area of a soldier istaken as 4.2 square feet, the probable number of hits he would receive atvarious distances from the point of burst are shown in table 5. To paraphrasetable 5 in terms of the
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TABLE 3.-Japanese mortar ammunition
Nomenclature | Explosive components | Fuze | Weight (complete round) | Weapons in which used | |
Main charge | Booster | ||||
| Pounds | |||||
HE mortar: | |||||
| Type 89, 50 mm. | TNT | --- | Small, instantaneous | 1.6 | Type 89 grenade discharger. |
| Type 11-year, 70 mm. | ...do... | Picric | Instantaneous, short delay, mortar. | 4.28 | Type 11-year, 70 mm. rifled mortar. |
| Type 97, 81 mm. | ...do... | ...do... | ...do... | 7.35 | Type 97, 81 mm. mortar, and Type 99, 81 mm. mortar. |
| Type 100, 81 mm. | ...do... | ...do... | ...do... | 7.52 | Do. |
| Type 94, 90 mm. | ...do... | Picric (pressured). | ...do... | 11.8 | Type 94, 90 mm. mortar and Type 97, 90 mm. mortar. |
| Type 94, 90 mm. semisteel1 | ...do... | (2) | ...do... | 11.5 | Do. |
| Type 2, 120 mm | ...do... | RDX and wax | ...do... | 26.5 | Type 2, 120 mm. mortar |
| Type 96, 150 mm. | ...do... | Picric | ...do... | 58.06 | Type 96, 150 mm. smoothbore mortar. |
| Type 97, 150 mm.3 | ...do... | RDX and wax | ...do... | 43.5 | Do. |
Spigot-type mortar: | |||||
| 32 cm. | Picric | PETN | Interim | 737 | Special spigot-type mortar. |
1This shell is similar in design to the Type 94, 90mm. HE shell, except that it is made of low grade steel or semisteel instead ofhigh grade steel.
2Data are not available.
3Except for its shorter size this projectile is similar inconstruction to the Type 96 HE long round.
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probability of receiving one hit, a soldier at 6.5 yards from the point ofburst would receive a hit from the Type 89 grenade; at 8.2 yards, from the 81mm. mortar; and at 8.93 yards, from the 90 mm. mortar.
TABLE 4.-Frequency distribution of Japanese grenade discharger and mortar shells
| Distance of panels | Counted hits on panels1 | Number of hits2 | ||||
| Type 89 | 81 mm. | 90 mm. | Type 89 | 81 mm. mortar | 90 mm. mortar | |
| 5 | 132 | 327 | 276 | 158 | 392 | 414 |
| 10 | 48 | 19 | 104 | 58 | 95 | 156 |
| 15 | 37 | 42 | 65 | 44 | 50 | 98 |
| 20 | 26 | 22 | 20 | 31 | 26 | 30 |
| 25 | 21 | 17 | 21 | 25 | 20 | 32 |
| 30 | 18 | 8 | 14 | 22 | 10 | 21 |
1Panels cover one-sixth of eachcircle.
2Calculated for full coverage of circles.
TABLE 5.- Hitprobability for human targets, Japanese grenade discharger and mortar shells
Distance of panels from burst (radius of circle in yards) | Probable number of hits for type of shell | ||
Type 89 grenade discharger | 81 mm. mortar | 90 mm. mortar | |
5 | 1.56 | 4.4 | 5.7 |
10 | .39 | .55 | .7 |
15 | .17 | .16 | .21 |
20 | .10 | .07 | .09 |
25 | .06 | .04 | .05 |
30 | .04 | .02 | .03 |
The reader should note that this was just one test. Underdifferent circumstances, results could also be expected to differ. For example,a mortar shell does not hit the ground perpendicularly when fired for effect.The more acute the angle a shell assumes when striking the ground, the more thedistribution of fragments will vary from pure randomness in all directions.Those emanating from the upper surface will go high into the air, those from thesides will come closest to a random dispersion within limited bilateral areas,and those on the underside of the shell will imbed themselves in the ground.This results in a butterfly pattern of dispersion which is ascribed to manytypes of shells. While the foregoing experiment arrived at some figures for thedispersion of fragments from these Japanese missiles, it did not tell what thewounding capabilities of the hits were. This is the core of the subject of woundballistics and will be fully developed in later chapters of this volume. Neithercould the study just described determine by actual count the number
25
of fragments produced by each type of shell. Of the fragmentswhich were recovered, their size was generally small, about one-eighth toone-sixteenth of an inch in diameter.
A study conducted in the Zone of Interior in December 1944,however, had as its purpose the recovery of as many fragments as possible fromthe detonations of each of five 81 mm. mortar shells. From 542 to 696 fragmentsper shell were recovered. The mean was 608.6 fragments per shell. Thiscorresponds remarkably well with the sum of the entries in the column pertainingto the number of hits for the 81 mm. mortar calculated for full coverage ofcircles in table 4. Figure 11 shows the number, size, and shape of the fragmentsrecovered from one of the five shells tested.
26
The foregoing studies were presented to give the reader anappreciation of the wounding potential of Japanese mortar shells as he readssubsequent chapters of this volume. It would have been desirable to note theinitial and terminal velocity of the fragments and their weight, since theactual wound production of a missile is, to a great extent, a function of itsmass and velocity. These data were not available, unfortunately, but it can beassumed, based on the initial velocity of fragments from other mortar shells ofsimilar properties, that the initial velocity of fragments from the Japanese 81mm. shell was over 2,500 f.p.s. The weight of the fragments of the Japanese 81mm. mortar shell can be estimated in that the average gross weight for one shellof fragments collected from detonations of the December 1944 test was 5.50pounds. Thus, it took more than 100 fragments of the Japanese 81 mm. mortarshell to make 1 pound of steel. These data, taken in conjunction with thedistribution data presented, should give the reader a good idea of the value ofthe mortar in ground combat-a weapon which was so fully exploited by theJapanese.
For guns and howitzers.-A Japanese artillery round wasconventional in design with the usual components-projectile, fuze, propellingcharge, and primer. The projectiles were cylindrical with ogival heads and couldbe classified as HE, AP, incendiary, tracer, or shrapnel according to theirpurposes and construction. Many embodied combinations of these elements. Therewere also hollow and shaped charges in the AT, AP types. Fuzes to detonate theprojectile at the target were PD (point detonating) or BD (base detonating)according to their position on time projectile. They also differed as to whetherthe action was to be instantaneous, delay, or instantaneous-delay incombination.
With respect to the fuze action of enemy artillery shells, itshould be noted that none of the Axis Powers possessed the proximity fuze, adevice which permitted the airburst of shells. That is, the Axis forces coulddelay the detonation of their shells after impact, but they could not make themexplode at predetermined altitudes over a target, except by time fuzes. Anairburst is highly desirable because fragmentation then more evenly saturatesthe whole area of the shell's effective radius with pieces of steel. A shellstriking the ground at an oblique angle with nose down, as explained in thepreceding section on mortar ammunition, has a fragmentation pattern more or lesslimited to the lateral aspects. German attempts to achieve the airburst effect,without a mechanical time fuze, will be described in that section.
Japanese artillery rounds ranged in weight from a little over1 pound for the smaller guns to well over 100 pounds in the heavy-artilleryclasses. The bursting charges were either TNT, picric acid, RDX (cyclonite) andbeeswax, black powder, or dinitronaphthalene and combinations thereof. Many ofthe various types of shells could be used interchangeably in Japanese artilleryif the bore size was comparable. Because of the many sizes and types, it wouldbe neither feasible nor worthwhile to attempt a comprehensive survey of Japaneseartillery ammunition here. Moreover, the most essential data concerningfragmentation characteristics could not be obtained. The lack of this
27
data greatly limits the value of any information which could be presented.Accordingly, only general features of the most commonly encountered types ofJapanese artillery ammunition will be described. The data are presented in table 6.
Other Missile-Producing Agents
Grenades.-Because of its widespread use in the grenadedischarger (knee mortar), the Japanese fragmentation hand grenade wasresponsible for a considerable number of casualties sustained by U.S. forces inthe Pacific islands. The Model 91 (1931) (fig. 12) hand grenade was mostversatile. It had a cylindrical cast iron body, 2.75 inches long and 1.97 inchesin diameter, which was divided into 50 serrated segments. The bursting chargeconsisted of 65 grams of pressed TNT. When used as a hand grenade, thefiring pin
FIGURE 12.-Model 91 (1931) hand grenade.
28-31
TABLE 6.-Japanese artillery ammunitioncommonly used
32
was screwed down as far as possible, the safety pin removed,and the head of the grenade struck on a hard object-rock, shoe heel, helmet,and so forth-to activate the fuze. The delay was from 8 to 9 seconds. Therewas an opening in the base of the grenade into which could be screwed a steelpropellent container when it was used in the grenade discharger or a fintailstabilizer when it was used as a rifle grenade. As a rifle grenade, a 6.5 mm.wood-bullet blank cartridge propelled the grenade from a spigot-type launcherwhich was affixed to the rifle. In both cases-as a projectile for the grenadelauncher or as a rifle grenade-the setback initiated the fuze.
There were two other Japanese hand grenades of this samegeneral design. One, the Model 97 (1937), was similar to the Model 91 grenadeexcept for the fact that a solid base prevented its use in the grenadedischarger or as a rifle grenade. This grenade also differed from the Model 91in that it had only a 4- to 5-second delay, and it was 4 inches long and 2inches in greatest diameter. A smaller grenade, Model 99 (1939 (Kiska)), had asmooth-surfaced cast steel body filled with picric acid. The overall length was3? inches; diameter, 15/8 inches; and total weight, approximately 10 ounces. Thefuze delay was from 4 to 5 seconds. Although the bottom of the body was solid,the Kiska grenade could be fired from a rifle with the use of a Type 100launcher especially designed for this grenade.
Among other miscellaneous types of grenades, the Japanese hada stick-type (potato-masher) grenade which had a smooth cylindrical body ofone-quarter of an inch cast steel and a wood handle. There was also an HE riflegrenade, Model 3, which could be fired from both the Model 38 and Model 99rifles with a spigot-type launcher and the blank wood-bullet cartridge. Whilesimilar to the Model 91 hand grenade, it was smaller and had a smooth wallrather than the serrated body. The fuze for this rifle grenade was instantaneousupon striking an object.
Landmines.-The Japanese employed both AT and antipersonnelmines in greater numbers as defensive weapons as the war reached closer to theirhomeland.
The Model 93(1933) (tape-measure) mine was a smallcircular-shaped mine 7 inches in diameter, 1? inches high, with four metal ringson each side for carrying or tying the mine in place. It weighed 3 pounds andhad approximately 2 pounds of explosive within a sheet metal container.
The yardstick mine, so-called because it was exactly 36inches long, was oval in cross-section and had four fuzes or pressure points.Its charge consisted of eight ?-pound blocks of picric acid in a tin tube.
The Model 98 (1938) hemispherical antiboat mine was designedby the Japanese for beach defense against landing craft but was also used onland as an AT mine. It had a hemispherical appearance with two protruding,hornlike electrochemical fuzes. The body was of mild steel with two carryinghandles. Total weight of the mine was 106 pounds, with 46 pounds of explosives.The single-horn antiboat mine (teakettle mine) was smaller, had only one horn,weighed 66 pounds, and contained 22 pounds of explosives.
33
The Model 99 AP mine was also called the magnetic AT bomb orthe magnetic AP hand grenade. This mine was small, circular, 4? inches indiameter, and 1? inches high. Four permanent magnets were fastened toits sides by khaki webbing to hold it in place against a metal surface until itdetonated. It weighed 2 pounds and 11 ounces.
The Japanese also used several other types of mines whichwill not be discussed in detail here.
Boobytraps.-Most of the Japanese boobytraps encounteredduring the early stages of the war were constructed with ordinary hand grenadeswith friction-type fuze igniters or improvised electrical fuzes. Later,machine-made fuzes were also used. These fuzes were rigged to an explosivecharge which would easily detonate when pressure was applied or when anelectrical circuit was closed.
Ingenious methods were used to boobytrap the charges.Phonographs were wired using the pickup arm as an electric contact so that, whenmoved to play a record, a circuit to a charge beneath the floor would be closed.Hand grenades were often trip-wire-operated and either buried just below thesurface or left lying on the ground in brush or rubble where troops could stepon or kick them. Others were found attached to coconuts by means of a string.When the coconut was picked up, the grenade exploded. Bamboo poles weresimilarly fixed with the expectation that troops would pick up the poles to makehuts. Common objects such as fruit cans, toothpaste tubes, flashlights,umbrellas, pipes, pistols, and soap were also boobytrapped. The Japanese wereeven known to place hand grenades or packages of picric acid in the armpits orunderneath bodies of their partially buried dead to explode when the bodies weremoved.
Bangalore torpedoes, used by the Japanese to demolish barbedwire entanglements, were occasionally also used as boobytraps. The torpedoconsisted of an explosive charge placed into a piece of common iron pipe cappedon both ends. To operate, the caps had to be removed and a fuze inserted in oneend. Casualties resulted when American soldiers tried to use the pipes ascrowbars or fire grates.
Distribution of Weapons
While the foregoing paragraphs have attempted to summarizethe characteristics of Japanese ordnance, a true picture of its capabilitiesrequires some information as to the distribution of weapons to units in thefield. This is a very difficult picture to draw for any army because armyorganization is by necessity flexible and subject to frequent metamorphoses withchanging circumstances and missions. In the Japanese Army, as in most of thearmies of World War II, the division was the basic unit of the combined arms,and an inventory of its armament should give a good idea of the distribution ofprimary infantry weapons. Unfortunately, the situation is not so simple. Therewere many types of divisions. The writers of this chapter, after con-
34
siderable deliberation, chose to describe what has beencalled the Japanese triangular infantry division with RCT's (regimental combatteams). This choice was made since the surveys described in other chapters ofthis study relate to combat conditions in which this type of divisionorganization was most probably used.
The RCT triangular division was specially organizedfor island warfare and differed radically from the standard andstandard-reinforced triangular divisions. Its strength, somewhat less than thestandard divisions, varied considerably according to the degree of reinforcementwhich was made. While the average strength of this division with only one of thecombat teams reinforced was 13,600, it could range as high as 16,000. Table 7presents the weapons of this type of division with one reinforced and twostandard RCT's. The division troops included tank, signal, intendance,ordnance, land transportation and sea transportation units; a field hospital;and a water supply and purification section. A reinforced regiment had threeinfantry battalions, each with three rifle companies, one mortar company, oneartillery company, and one engineer platoon; a machine cannon company; tankcompany; engineer company; signal company; and a medical detachment. A standardregiment in this type of division had three infantry battalions, each with threerifle companies and an infantry gun company; an artillery battalion; engineercompany; signal company; transport company; and a medical detachment.
Weapons | Reinforced RCT | Standard RCT | Standard RCT | Division headquarters and troops | Aggregate |
Rifles | 1,950 | 1,650 | 1,650 | 900 | 6,150 |
Grenade discharges | 108 | 108 | 108 | 4 | 328 |
Light machineguns | 108 | 108 | 108 | 13 | 337 |
Heavy machineguns | 18 | 18 | 18 | --- | 54 |
20 mm. AT rifles | 9 | --- | --- | 10 | 19 |
20 mm. AA machine cannon | 6 | --- | --- | --- | 6 |
37 mm. AT guns | 6 | 6 | 6 | --- | 18 |
70 mm. battalion howitzers | --- | 6 | 6 | --- | 12 |
81 mm. mortars | 54 | --- | --- | --- | 54 |
75 mm. mountain guns | 9 | --- | --- | --- | 9 |
75 mm. field guns | --- | 12 | 12 | --- | 24 |
Flamethrowers | 7 | 4 | 4 | --- | 15 |
Tank | 9 | --- | --- | 17 | 26 |
The reader may have noticed that, in table 7, many of the previously describedweapons are missing. Some of these helped make up the arms of a standardinfantry division. In a standard infantry division, there was, for instance, a fieldartillery regiment with twenty-four 75 mm. field guns and
35
twelve 105 mm. howitzers. The regiments of the standarddivision had both 70 mm. battalion howitzers and 75 mm. regimental guns. Theother weapons were in many different types of independent units, such asartillery regiments and mortar battalions, which usually made up army troops.(There was no Japanese corps organization similar to the corps organization inthe U.S. Army. The Japanese field army had the tactical functions of a U.S. Armycorps and the administrative and operational responsibilities of a U.S. fieldarmy.)
GERMAN ORDNANCE
The history of Germany in modern times closely parallels, inmany respects, the history of Japan. At a time when the New World was beingsettled and the other powers of Europe were in their period of greatestterritorial and commercial expansion, Germany was beset by internal strife.The country was split into small principalities and kingdoms for over 200 yearsfollowing the Thirty Years' War (1618-48). It was not until the latter halfof the 19th century that two powers arose which were strong enough to contesteach other for control of all Germany. This struggle culminated in the SevenWeeks' War in 1866 which saw Prussia emerge on top. In 1867, the same year asthe Meiji Restoration in Japan, a semblance of a united Germany came into beingin the North German Confederation created by the Prussian Chancellor, Otto vonBismarck. In 1870, the establishment of the German Empire (Deutsches Reich) wasproclaimed, and Wilhelm I of Prussia was made Emperor on 18 January 1871.
Unlike Japan, the German peoples had not let themselvesbecome isolated from the rest of the world during this interim of internalconflict. The Prussian Army was first rate for its time and a victorious army inthe fight for the control of Germany. By 1870, Bismarck was ready for war. Itwas a simple matter to trick Napoleon III of France into a war with the newGerman State, and it was an equally simple matter for the disciplined PrussianArmy to defeat the demoralized French forces. France ceded Alsace and most ofLorraine to Germany by the Treaty of Frankfurt on 10 May 1871 and enriched thetreasury of the just formed Deutsches Reich by paying an indemnity of 5 billionfrancs.
These successes firmly established the high position ofPrussian officers in the government of the new State and guaranteed theestablishment and maintenance of, what they hoped, was a second to none fightingmachine as a part of the country's national policy. The military spirit becamethe fiber of the country; the military band, commonplace. The duel with swordswas the most respected form for settling disputes between individuals and wasthe ultimate recourse for the preservation of one's honor. On such a politicaland sociological base was built a mighty force which rose to challenge the peaceof Europe and the world in 1914. It required the combined might of the
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Allies to stop this force in 1918, but the Treaty ofVersailles did not destroy the spirit of militarism nor the men who possessedthe know-how to conduct such a war. Shackled and frustrated during the period ofthe German Republic, the military spirit emerged afresh with Hitler'sestablishment of the Third Reich. The somber strains of Deutschland Uber Allesonce again threatened the world-a phoenix arising from its ashes not yet cold.
The German Army of World War II was the end product of nearlya century devoted continuously to the exhaustive study of all aspects of thescience of war. It was the product of a totalitarian country which had acceptedtotal war as an instrument of its national policy and which supported the armedforces with every scientific, economic, political, and psychological resourceavailable. The weapons were the best that keen scientific and military mindscould devise and which the country's economic resources could provide. Theoverall weapons system was tailored to fit the new tactical doctrine created andtaught by the general staff, a tactical doctrine new in the means by which itwould be carried out but employing every ruse and effect which had been known tosucceed in wars through the ages. They called this type of warfare theblitzkrieg. The main components of the blitzkrieg included deep penetration on anarrow front by huge armored vehicles and demoralization of the enemy anddestruction of his lines of communications by screaming dive bombers. Penetrate,surprise, shock, encircle, demoralize, and mop up-this was the simple theme.The blitzkrieg proved singularly effective in the early days of World War IIagainst troops woefully and inadequately prepared by training and by theirequipment to stop such a force.
In this type of warfare, the infantry was more or lessrelegated to the position of mopping up a confused enemy force cut off fromreinforcements and from contact with the rear. If the infantry was used as aninitial assault element, the purpose was limited to achieving a penetration orwedge to permit the armor to go through the infantry for the primary phase ofthe attack. The infantry was also used to follow up the tank assault in order toprotect the flanks and to consolidate the ground gained before the phase ofgeneral mopping-up operations. Accordingly, many weapons of the infantryman wereautomatic. While having less accuracy or range than conventional aimed smallarms, they better suited the missions of the German infantry. Initially,however, the basic arm of the German infantryman was the carbine, Kar.(Karabiner) 98K, a bolt-action weapon which was just as efficient at long rangesas any other European rifle. At the time of the attack on Soviet Russia, theGerman infantryman did not have as many automatic weapons as his counterpart inthe Red Army.
German artillery doctrine closely resembled that of the U.S.Army, but, in practice, greater emphasis was given to assault guns for closesupport of the attacking infantry or armor. Less emphasis was given to AAartillery during the earlier periods of the war, since it was expected that theLuftwaffe would have general air superiority over any of the foreseeable enemiesof the German Reich.
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However, it has always been the fate of new offensive weaponsand methods to meet their equal, eventually, in adequate defensive weapons andtactics. As the war progressed, the Germans were to find that armor sent aloneagainst adequate AT defenses soon became "sitting ducks." Intank-versus-tank warfare, the Germans were chagrined to discover that the SovietUnion had developed tanks with sufficient armorplate protection and long-rangeguns to enable them to hold their own against German tanks. The other Allieshad, meanwhile, fielded enough armor and developed tactics which enabled them to"gang up" on German armor. An unforeseeable eventuality to the Naziwar chiefs was the drastic loss in air superiority which the Luftwaffe suffered.The greater strength of the Allies in artillery and in longer range,high-velocity infantry weapons was a great deterrent to the successfulemployment of the German foot soldier. The period of "blitzkrieging"had come to an end.
To meet these changes, the German Army created units ofmotorized and armored infantry to be employed with the armor to destroy enemy ATdefenses and protect friendly tanks. More artillery was made self-propelled andmounted on armored vehicles to facilitate their deployment and to make Alliedcounterbattery more difficult, but fuel shortages eventually erased theseadvantages. Effective AA artillery systems were developed. Antitank and AAweapons were ingeniously used as assault and defensive weapons. Rocket-typeartillery, although less accurate than conventional or recoilless types, wascreated to make up for shortcomings in German artillery, especially in layingmassed fires ahead of attacking formations and in the protection of the flanksof attacking columns. The original overdevotion to the principle of providingautomatic weapons to the infantry could not be changed for new reasons. Criticalmanpower shortages hit the Wehrmacht, and it became necessary to cut down thepersonnel strengths of ground units while at the same time increasing firepowerby using even more automatic weapons. Finally, the German concept of anaggressive, mobile, and fluid defense had to be abandoned for linear-typedefenses in depth and in strongly fortified, organized positions.
The German Army which had started the war with arrogantconfidence in its sensational offensive techniques finished the war with greatdespair while desperately employing every defensive means possible to forestallthe obvious end and in order, perhaps, to obtain a peace short of unconditionalsurrender.
The foregoing summary, it is hoped, will provide the readerwith background information to help him better understand and evaluate thedescriptions of individual items of German ordnance which follow.
Small Arms
Pistols.-Perhaps the most widely known official sidearm ofthe German Army was the 9 mm. (0.354 in.) Parabellum pistol or Luger (P (Pistole)08). The 1908 model was a modification of an original Borchardtpistol which the
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Germans had redesigned in 1900 and designated the Luger. Thisweapon was well recognized for its power and accuracy and customarily utilizedan 8-round magazine with 9 mm. Parabellum ball ammunition. Variations in thepropelling charge of the cartridge resulted in muzzle velocities ranging from aslow as 1,025 to as high as 1,500 f.p.s. The maximum range with lowest poweredcartridge was about 1,200 yards, and the effective range was from 50 to 75yards.
A later issue standard German sidearm was the 9 mm. Walthersemiautomatic pistol (P 38) (fig. 13). One of the distinguishing features ofthis weapon
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was its double action, which enabled it to be fired bysqueezing the trigger without first cocking the hammer when there was acartridge in the chamber. The Walther fired the regular issue German 9 mm.Parabellum ammunition and could also use the 9 mm. ammunition manufactured forthe British Sten, British Lanchester, and the Italian Beretta submachineguns.Ballistic data were the same as for the Parabellum (Luger) pistol.
Submachineguns.-The 9 mm. MP (Maschinenpistole) 18 wasthe original German submachinegun introduced toward the end of World War I andcontinued in limited use-police, concentration camp guards-through World WarII. It fired the standard 9 mm. Parabellum ammunition with a 32-round drummagazine. The cyclic rate of fire was 550 rounds per minute; the effectiverange, 218 yards.
A more recent model of the 9 mm. submachinegun was theBergmann MP 34. This was a semiautomatic or full-automatic, air-cooled,blowback-operated weapon which was fed by a 32-round box magazine. The effectiverange was 218 yards; the maximum rate of fire was from 500 to 600 rounds perminute; and the practical rate of fire, 120 rounds per minute. Another 9 mm.submachinegun was originally designed for use by paratroopers but gradually cameto be used by all general combat units. It was first brought out as the model MP38 and later modified as the MP 40 (Schmeisser) (fig. 14). Both models wereequipped with a folding shoulder stock and could be used as either a shoulder ora hip weapon. Standard 9 mm. Parabellum ammunition was used with a 32-round boxmagazine, and both had muzzle velocities of 1,040 to 1,250 f.p.s. The effectiverange was 200 yards; cyclic rate of fire, from 450 to 600 rounds per minute, depending upon the type of ammunitionand the tension of the recoil spring. The practical rate of fire was 180 roundsper minute.
FIGURE 14.-MP 40 (Schmeisser) 9 mm. submachinegun, stock extended.
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When fired fully automatically, however, these weapons couldnot have been accurate at ranges over 100 yards.
During the course of the war, the Germans issued variousmodels of a 7.92 mm. (0.312 in.) submachinegun. The most commonly encounteredmodels were the MP 43, MP 43/1 and the MP 44. The designation of the MP 44 waslater changed to Sturmgewehr 44 (assault rifle 44). The original design fromwhich these weapons were developed was the 7.92 mm. M. Kb. 42 (machine carbine42). Many parts were constructed from steel stampings, but the gun was veryserviceable with reliable operation and general accuracy. The ammunition was7.92 mm. type MP 43 Patronen with mild steel core and had a muzzle velocity ofapproximately 2,250 f.p.s. The effective range was 400 yards, with an effectiveautomatic rate of fire of 100 to 120 rounds per minute and a semiautomatic rateof fire of 40 to 50 rounds per minute.
Rifles and carbines.-The standard shoulder weapon ofthe German Army was a 7.92 mm. carbine, Kar. 98K of Mauser design (fig. 15). Itcould be regarded as a carbine or a short rifle. In general design, itwas similar to the U.S. M1903 rifle, and certain parts were interchangeable withthe later model German carbine, G. (Gewehr) 33/40. The Kar. 98K weighed 9 poundsand had an overall length of 43.5 inches. It fired 7.92 mm. Mauser, ground-typeammunition with a muzzle velocity of 2,600 to 2,800 f.p.s. The maximum range wasapproximately 2,500 to 3,000 yards with an effective range of approximately 600to 800 yards.
FIGURE 15.-Model98, 7.92 mm. German Mauser rifle.
Three older models of this gun, which varied only in barrellength and other minor design features (the Gewehr 98, the Kar. 98, and the Kar.98B) were auxiliary and supplementary.
The 7.92 mm. carbine, Gewehr 33/40, was typical of the Germancarbine design. This gun had an overall length of 391/8 inches, weighed 7 pounds11 ounces, and had a manually operated bolt action. The carbine fired 7.92 mm.
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Mauser ball-type ammunition. The G. 33/40 was actually theCzech 7.92 Model 33, slightly modified, and manufactured by the Germansat Ceska Zobrovka Brno.
A number of 7.92 mm. semiautomatic rifles were also issued,and these appeared to fulfill the same function as the U.S. .30-caliber rifle,M1. The G. 41 (W) and G. 41 (M) were basically the same, except for minorexternal changes, different bolt mechanisms, and manufacturing methods. Bothrifles were gas operated, air cooled, and fed by a 10-round box magazine. Onthorough testing at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland, the G. 41 (W)proved to be much inferior to the U.S. rifle, caliber .30, M1 in reliabilityunder severe conditions. It fell down especially in mud and rain tests, andbreakages were numerous.
In an attempt to reduce the expense and to expedite themanufacture of the semiautomatic rifle, the Germans also produced the 7.92 mm.Kar. 43 which used a maximum number of forgings and stampings in itsconstruction.
The 7.92 mm. German paratroop rifle, FG (Fallschirmj?gerGewehr) 42, (fig. 16), was used by ground troops and was employed either as asubmachinegun, a rifle, or as a light machinegun. Its action was a modificationof the Lewis light machinegun, and it fired the 7.92 mm. Mauser ground-typeammunition with a cyclic rate of fire of 600 rounds per minute.
FIGURE 16.-Model FG 42 (1st version) 7.92 mm. automatic rifle.
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During the invasion and occupation of Poland, the Germanscaptured large numbers of the Mascerzek 7.92 mm. AT rifle, Model 35 (fig. 17).These rifles were issued to the German ground forces and were used extensivelyin the early stages of World War II. The Polish weapon was a bolt-action gun ofthe modified Mauser type and resembled the Mauser rifle except that it waslonger and heavier and had a muzzle brake. The ammunition, which had a steeljacket with an AP steel core and a lead antimony filler, was contained in a5-round clip. The muzzle velocity was very high, 4,100 f.p.s.
FIGURE 17.-Model 35 (ex-Polish) 7.92 mm. antitank rifle.
Following the Polish design, the Germans produced severalrifles identified as Pz.B (Panzerb?chse) 38 and 39. The Pz.B 39 was manuallyloaded and fired a single shot from the shoulder with the aid of a bipod. Theammunition was a 13 mm. cartridge case necked down to 7.92 mm., similar to thatused in the Polish AT rifle. The projectile had a tungsten carbide core with alacrimator pellet and tracer mixture. The muzzle velocity was 3,540 f.p.s., witha 1?-inch penetration of face-hardened plate at a range of 100 yards.
By means of minor design alterations, the Pz.B 39 was modified to a grenade throwing rifle (Granatb?chse 39). The attached launcher was the Scheissbecher which was the same type used on the Mauser Kar. 98K rifle. Both large and small AT grenades and antipersonnel grenades could be fired from the rifle. The propelling medium was a wood-bullet blank cartridge.
Machineguns.-The most commonly encountered automatic weapon used by the German armed forces was the 7.92 mm. dual-purpose machinegun, Model 34 (MG (Maschinengewehr) 34) (fig. 18). This weapon possessed an unusual degree of adaptability since it could be used as a light or heavy machine-gun against ground targets and troops or as an AA machinegun. It could also be mounted on tanks and other vehicles. The ammunition consisted of the 7.92 mm. Mauser ground type and was supplied in 75-round saddle-type drums, 50-round belt drums, and nondisintegrating metallic link belts. The
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FIGURE 18.-MG 34 (Solothurn) 7.92 mm. dual-purpose machinegun.
muzzle velocity varied between 2,500 to 3,000 f.p.s.,depending upon the type of ammunition. The cyclic rate of fire was from 800 to900 rounds per minute, and the practical rate of fire as a lightmachinegun was from 100 to 120 rounds per minute. As a heavy machinegun, thisrate increased to 300 to 350 rounds per minute. The maximum range was about5,000 yards with an effective range as a light machinegun of 600 to 800 yardsand as a heavy machinegun of 2,000 to over 3,800 yards.
In the later developments of the MG 34, a number of modelswere produced (MG 34 modified, MG 34 S, and MG 34/41)-allof them retaining the original pattern of the weapon-but each modificationtended toward simplification and elimination of machine parts. One of the latestmodels of German ground machineguns was the 7.92 mm. MG 42 which was intended toreplace the MG 34. The MG 42 continued to be a multipurpose machinegun whichcould be mounted on a bipod as a light machinegun and on a tripod as a heavymachinegun. The MG 34 and 42 could also be used as AA machineguns and could bemounted on armored vehicles. The feeding device consisted of 50-round links ofmetallic nondisintegrating link belt or 50-round belt drums. The muzzle velocitywas from 2,500 to 3,000 f.p.s., with a cyclic rate of fire of 1,335 rounds perminute. When used as a light machinegun, the maximum range was 2,200 yards andthe effective range, from 600 to 800 yards.
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After the occupation of Czechoslovakia, the Germans adopted one of theCzechoslovak 7.92 mm. heavy machineguns and labeled it MG 37 (T) (Brno). Thisweapon appeared to have been designed primarily for use on tanks and otherarmored vehicles, but it was also very effective as a heavy machinegun whenmounted on a tripod.
Although primarily intended as an aircraft machinegun, the 7.92 mm. MG 15 wasfrequently utilized as a ground weapon by adding a standard bipod and a buttextension. The standard 7.92 mm. rimless ammunition was used in this gun with acyclic rate of fire of 1,000 rounds per minute and a practical rate of fire of300 rounds per minute. This gun was produced in Japan as the Model 98 (1938)flexible aircraft machinegun.
Mortars
At the onset of World War II, the Germans had two principal mortars, the 50mm. company and the 81 mm. battalion. When it became apparent that they couldnot match the firepower of their enemies, especially the Soviet forces, a short81 mm. mortar was designed to supplement the 50 mm.
The German 50 mm. (1.969 in.) light mortar (5 cm. l.Gr.W. (LeichterGranatenwerfer) 36) consisted of a tube, cradle, and baseplate and differed fromthe conventional American mortar design in being trigger fired. This weapon hada total weight of 31 pounds, and, owing to its compact structure, it couldeasily be broken down into two loads for transportation. It fired an HEprojectile weighing 2.2 pounds with a muzzle velocity of 230 f.p.s. and amaximum range of 550 yards at 45? elevation. The rate of fire was from 12to 20 rounds per minute.
A power-operated automatic 50 mm. mortar (5 cm. Machinengranatwerfer) was found in special concrete turrets in fixed defensive systems. This weapon was almost twice as long as the standard 50 mm. mortar. A 6-round clip was manually loaded into a rack, and as each round was fed into the breechblock the tube would slide down over the shell and lock into place. The feeding, locking, and firing mechanisms were electrically operated.
The German 81 mm. (3.19 in.) mortar (8 cm. s.Gr.W. (Schwerer Granatenwerfer) 34) (fig. 19) was the equivalent of the U.S. 81 mm. mortar, M1. This weapon was a smoothbore, muzzle-loaded mortar with a fixed firing pin and weighed 124 pounds. Standard smoke and HE ammunition were used. The HE shell weighed 7.7 pounds and had a maximum range varying between 1,094 and 2,625 yards, depending upon the number of propellent increments. In addition, a modified HE shell known as the "bouncing bomb" was developed to provide an airburst, but it proved unsuccessful.
In an attempt to combine the firepower of a medium mortar with the mobility and lighter weight of a light mortar, the Germans produced a short 81 mm. mortar (8 cm. Kz. Gr.W. (Kurzer Granatenwerfer) 42). This weapon, with a shorter barrel and smaller baseplate and bipod than the standard 81 mm.
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FIGURE 19.-81mm. mortar with bipod and baseplate.
mortar, weighed 62 pounds and fired the HE shell with a maximumrange of 1,200 yards.
Among the heavy mortars, the 105 mm. (4.13 in.) smoke mortar(10 cm. Nebelwerfer 35) was an enlarged version of the standard 81 mm. mortarand corresponded to the U.S. 4.2-inch chemical mortar. Although it was issuedoriginally to chemical warfare troops for firing smoke and chemical shells, a16-pound HE shell with a maximum range of 3,300 yards was also issued. Another105 mm. chemical mortar (10 cm. Nebelwerfer 40) was a smoothbore, breechloadedweapon transported on a carriage from which it could be fired. This mortar firedan HE shell weighing 19.1 pounds and had a maximum range of 6,780 yards.
After the invasion of the U.S.S.R. and the capture of largenumbers of the Soviet 120 mm. (4.7 in.) mortar (fig. 36), the Germans adoptedthis weapon and began to manufacture it in Germany. This mortar (12 cm. Gr.W.42) was conventional in design and had a total weight in the firing position of616 pounds and a barrel length of 6.12 feet. The German model could bepercussion or trigger fired and used four types of German HE shells as well ascaptured Soviet ammunition. The HE ammunition weighed 35 pounds and, with amaximum range of 6,600 yards, provided artillery support comparable with
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that from the 105 mm. field howitzer. Because of its highdegree of mobility, it could quickly be towed or manhandled into a new firingposition. This was accomplished by means of an easily attached two-wheeledcarriage and by having the bipod carried clamped to the mortar ready for action.This same mortar was destined to be used again in Korea against American troops.
A 200 mm. (7.87 in.) spigot mortar (20 cm. LeichterLadungswerfer) was developed for use by engineering units in the destruction ofminefields, concrete fieldworks, and wire obstructions. It fired a standard HEshell that weighed 46 pounds and had a maximum range of 776 yards. A 380 mm.heavy spigot mortar with an HE shell weighing 331 pounds was probably anenlarged version of the 200 mm. weapon.
Artillery, Guns, and Howitzers
As in the case of Japanese ordnance, the variety of Germanguns and howitzers defies a description of each. Moreover, the details of theconstruction and functioning of any of these pieces would not contributematerially to an understanding of their casualty-producing capabilities. In viewof these considerations, table 8 lists the primary conventional artillery piecesof the German Army and shows the type, caliber, ammunition used, projectileweights, and maximum range. The models with a designation of "18"signify those which constituted the standard artillery of the German Army whenit entered World War II. Some of these were originally developed in World War I.In addition to the guns and howitzers shown in table 8, there were many modelsof heavy artillery-mostly long-range guns-which ranged in size from 21 cm.(8.27 in.) to 80 cm. (31.5 in.). These will not be described because they werenot intended to be casualty producing in frontline areas and are not significantin the casualty surveys which make up some of the later chapters of this volume.
While AT (fig. 20) and AA weapons do not normally function asprimary casualty-producing instruments of war against ground troops, they mustbe considered here because of the widespread use by the Germans of their 8.8 cm.(88 mm.) HE shell against ground formations. In almost all cases, German 8.8 cm.guns were either AA or AT weapons.
FIGURE 20.-Pak38, 50 mm. antitank gun.
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The basic 8.8 cm. gun was the Flak 18 which appeared as early as1934 as the standard AA artillery of the German Army. Later models were the Flak36 and 37 which differed only in mounts and data-transmission systems.Characteristic of AA artillery, these guns had an extremely long tube of 15 feet5 inches. The maximum horizontal range was 16,200 yards with the 20-pound HEround. The muzzle velocity with the HE shell was 2,690 f.p.s. Standing on its AAplatform, these models could traverse a complete 360?, be deflected 3? belowthe horizontal, and elevated 85? above the horizontal.
The Flak 36 gun also appeared as the standard armament of theheavy Tiger tanks. These tanks were designed primarily for defensive warfare orfor breaking through strong lines of defense and were relatively slow andcumbersome-stark evidence of the German turnabout from the blitzkrieg theory.Because of the huge gun-it extended 8 feet 10 inches beyond the forward end ofthe King Tiger tank-the hulls of the Tiger tanks were of interlocked weldedsteel, and their turrets were constructed in one piece in order to givesufficient rigidity. The King Tiger was virtually invulnerable to frontalattack.
The 8.8 cm. Flak 41 was basically similar in design to theFlak 18, 36, and 37 but was larger all around, platform mounted on a highlymobile wheeled base, and designed specifically as a multipurpose gun-AA, AT,and antipersonnel. The 21-foot 5.75-inch tube increased the muzzle velocity to3,280 f.p.s., with an accompanying increase in maximum horizontal range to21,580 yards. An automatic rammer and electrical firing mechanism allowed apractical rate of fire of 20 rounds per minute. By a special device incorporatedin the platform, it could be fired from its wheels.
The 8.8 cm. gun also appeared in several models of the 8.8cm. Pak 43 (fig. 21) which were mounted in tank destroyers and in theJagdpanther, a self-propelled gun on the Panther heavy tank chassis. The tankdestroyers
FIGURE 21.-Pak43, 8.8 cm. antitank gun.
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TABLE 8.-German guns andhowitzers
Weapon | Type | Caliber | Projectile | ||||
Centi- | Inches | Type | Weight | Muzzle velocity | Maximum range | ||
Pounds | F.p.s. | Yards | |||||
Gebirgs Kanone 15 | Mountain howitzer | 7.5 | 2.95 | HE, hollow charge, shrapnel, and AP | 12 HE | 1,270 | 7,270 |
1e. I.G. 181 | Light infantry gun | 7.5 | 2.95 | HE and hollow charge. | 12.13 and 13.2 (HE). | 730 | 3,900 |
Geb. G. 362 | Light mountain howitzer. | 7.5 | 2.95 | ...do... | 12.6 and 12.81 (HE). | 1,558 | 10,100 |
1e I.G. 37 | Infantry gun | 7.5 | 2.95 | ...do... | 12.13 and 13.2 (HE). | 1,165 | 5,630 |
1e. F.K. 18 | Light field gun | 7.5 | 2.95 | HE and shrapnel | Undetermined | 1,558 | 10,935 |
Feldkanone 38 | Field gun | 7.5 | 2.95 | HE and hollow charge | 12.85 and 13.88 (HE). | 1,985 | 12,570 |
Feldkanone 36 (r)3 | ...do... | 7.62 | 3.0 | HE, APHE, AP | 13.45 (HE) | 2,335 | 14,000 (APHE) |
Flak 18, 36, 37, and 414 | Multipurpose gun | 8.8 | 3.46 | HE and AP | 20.35 (HE) | 2,690 | 16,183 |
1e. F.K. 185 | Field gun | 10.5 | 4.14 | HE, AP, APCBC | 33.5 (HE) | 2,740 | 20,850 |
Leichte Feld Haubitze 186 | Field howitzer | 10.5 | 4.14 | HE, AP, APHE, hollow charge, chemical, smoke incendiary. | 32.6 (HE) | 1,772 (1e. F.H. 18/40) | 13,480 (1e. F.H. 18/40) |
1e. F.H. 18(M)4 | ...do... | 10.5 | 4.14 | ...do... | 32.7 (HE) | 1,772 | 13,500 |
1e. F.H. 18/404 | ...do... | 10.5 | 4.14 | ...do... | 32.6 (HE) | 1,772 | 13,479 |
Geb. H. 407 | Mountain howitzer | 10.5 | 4.14 | HE hollow charge, smoke | 32.6 (HE) | 1,870 | 13,810 |
Kanone 44 | Medium field gun | 12.8 | 5.04 | HE, AP | |||
s.F.H. 188 | Medium howitzer | 15 | 5.91 | HE, AP, anticoncrete, smoke | 95.7 (HE) | 1,705 | 14,630 |
s.I.G. 339 | Heavy infantry gun | 15 | 5.91 | HE smoke, stick bomb | 84 (HE) 97 (Stick) | 787 | 5,140 (HE) |
Kanone 1810 | Medium field gun | 15 | 5.91 | HE, AP, anticoncrete | 94.6 (HE) | 2,838 | 27,040 |
Kanone 394 | ...do... | 15 | 5.91 | ...do... | 94.6 (HE) | 2,838 | 27,040 |
s.F.K. 164 | Heavy field gun | 15 | 5.91 | HE capped | 113 | 2,480 | 21,370 |
17 cm. K. mit Mrs. Laf. 1811 | Long range mobile gun | 17 | 6.79 | HE, HEBC, AP | 138 (HE) | 3,035 | 32,370 |
21 cm. mit Mrs. Laf. 1812 | Heavy howitzer | 21 | 8.27 | HE, anticoncrete | 249 (HE) | 1,854 | 18,300 |
1Close support weapon capable of both low-andhigh-angle fire.
2Standard light mountain howitzer.
3Of Soviet design and manufacture.
4See text, p. 47 for various uses.
5Standard medium gun.
6Standard divisional field howitzer developed in World War I.Modified 1941 and called 1e. F.H. 18/40. All ballistically identical; latermodels increased range.
7Latest mountain artillery.
8Standard divisional artillery medium howitzer. Later modificationsincluded s.F.H. 18/40 and s.F.H. 42; modified models had muzzle velocity of1,952 f.p.s. and maximum range of 16,514 yards.
9Standard infantry gun capable of both low- and high-angle fire.
10The 15 cm. K39 was a later modification with similar ballisticcharacteristics and which could be mounted on an emplaced platform as a coastdefense gun.
11This gun could be put into and taken out of action very rapidly.Mounted in the 21 cm. M?rserlafette 18 carriage.
12Standard heavy howitzer.
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carried from 20 to 70 rounds of HE ammunition in addition tothe AP types. The muzzle velocity was 2,400 f.p.s., with a 20.7-pound HE round.While these tank destroyers were primarily designed to fight enemy tanks at longrange, they and the Jagdpanther could be used for many other purposes where ahighly mobile, rapid-firing gun with plenty of power was required.
Artillery, Recoilless Weapons, and Rocket Launchers
With the use of a funneled tube (venturi) attached to therear of the bored breechblock to allow the gases to escape to the rear, theheavy recoil and counterrecoil systems of artillery weapons can be eliminated.The result is a lighter recoilless weapon. Therefore, most of the Germanrecoilless weapons were originally designated for use in airborne operations,but they also saw extensive use in general ground combat.
The German recoilless 44 mm. AT grenade launchers (Panzerfaust)can hardly be classified as artillery weapons, since the entire launcher tubewas handled by the individual soldier. The Panzerfaust Klein 30 was an evensmaller version. Four models which varied only in overall size and weight of thetube and in the sighting rail were produced.
There was also an 8.8 cm. rocket launcher which was verysimilar to the U.S. 2.36-inch rocket launcher (Bazooka) and a heavy 8.8 cm.rocket launcher mounted on a two-wheeled carriage with single trail. The lattermore nearly approached the proportions of recoilless artillery, but it did nothave traversing or elevating mechanisms characteristic of artillery pieces.
German recoilless artillery weapons were 7.5 cm. or 10.5 cm.in caliber and designed to break down into loads for pack or airborne artillery.The 75 mm. (2.95 in.) airborne recoilless gun (7.5 cm. L.G. 40) had its weight,325 pounds, reduced to a minimum so that it could be dropped by parachute in twowicker containers. In comparison, the standard German 75 mm. light mountainhowitzer weighed 1,650 pounds. The HE ammunition weighed 12 pounds, and thisrecoilless weapon had a muzzle velocity of 1,238 f.p.s., with an estimatedmaximum range of 8,900 yards. In addition, hollow-charge and AP projectiles wereavailable for AT purposes.
There were two types of the 10.5 cm. (4.14 in.) airbornerecoilless gun employed by the German Army. The 10.5 cm. L. G. 40 was theearlier model and appeared to be the type most frequently encountered. The tubeand venturi jet made the overall length 6 feet 3 inches, and the gun in actionweighed 855 pounds. Both HE and hollow-charge projectiles could be fired. Armedwith the HE shell which weighed 32.6 pounds, the gun had a muzzle velocity of1,099 f.p.s. and a maximum range of 8,694 yards. A modification of the L. G. 40was introduced in 1943 and designated the 10.5 cm. L. C. 42. Modifications inthe carriage design, elevating mechanism, and breechblock increased the weightof the gun to 1,217 pounds, but it could still be broken down into five loadsfor use as pack or airborne artillery. With all these recoilless weapons, thedischarge of the propellent gases through the venturi
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tube created a danger zone approximately 20 yards wide and 50yards long to the sides and rear of the gun.
German rocket-type weapons appeared in combat in 1941, and,during the ensuing war years, a considerable number of models were developed andstandardized. Some of specialized design were encountered during theirexperimental trial. Rocket projectors were far more mobile than standard fieldartillery and were more effective for diffuse smoke and massed HE shellfire overa target area. They did not possess the same degree of accuracy as the moreconventional artillery piece. The main use of rocket projectiles was againstfortified positions and troop concentrations.
The original tube-type rocket projector was the 15 cm.Nebelwerfer 41 which consisted of a six-barrel assembly mounted on a two-wheeledcarriage. It took the crew approximately 90 seconds to fire the six rocketswhich could be HE or smoke. The HE round weighed 75.3 pounds with which therange of the weapon was 7,330 yards. This type of tube was mounted in two banksof five tubes each on a halftrack and was called the 15 cm. Panzerwerfer 42. The21 cm. Nebelwerfer 42 was similar in design to the 15 cm. Nebelwerfer 41 andcould be adapted with detachable rails to fire the 15 cm. ammunition. The248-pound HE round gave this weapon a maximum range of 8,600 yards.
An entirely different type of launcher utilized steel or woodframes from which rockets were fired. The first of this type was the wood-frame28/32 cm. Schweres Wurfgerat 40. Both 28 cm. HE and 32 cm. incendiary rocketscould be fired with a maximum range of 2,100 yards in the case of the184.5-pound, nearly 4-feet-long, HE rocket. The Schweres Wurfgerat 41 was asteel-rack version, and the Schweres Wurfrahmen used the wood Schweres Wurfgerat40 racks on an armored halftrack. A mobile version of the Schweres Wurfgerat 41was the 28/32 cm. Nebelwerfer 41 which mounted six racks on a two-wheeledtrailer.
The largest of the rocket weapons was the six-frame 30 cm.Nebelwerfer 42. This frame-type launcher used a 30 cm. HE round with a burstingcharge of 100 pounds of amatol as compared to the total weight of 75.3 poundsfor the 15 cm. rocket and a bursting charge of 28 pounds for the 21 cm. rocket.The range of this 30 cm. rocket weapon was 5,000 yards.
Ammunition
For small arms.-The two principal calibers of smallarms ammunition which the Germans used in World War II were 9 mm. and 7.92 mm.In the 9 mm. class, used mainly in pistols and submachineguns, the PPO8 orParabellum cartridge outnumbered all the other varieties in the field combined.In fact, the Parabellum (or Luger) was probably the most widely used and mostefficient military pistol cartridge in the world.
The true pistol cartridge had a brass case and gilding metalor gilding-metal-plated bullet, but this varied according to scarcity ofdesirable metals,
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As substitutes, cases of steel with a copper wash or steelblackened with a protecting lacquer were used. Bullets were made with copper andnickel-alloy jackets, pure nickel jackets, and with gilding-metal-plated steeljackets.
The PPO8 m.E. (mit Eisenkern, with iron core) replaced thestandard PPO8 in 1943 and had a steel case, steel-jacketed bullet with mildsteel core, and copper-plated jacket inside and out. The bullet weighed only 98grains as compared with the standard's 124. There was also a 9 mm. sinterediron bullet, PPO8SE.
Two other German 9 mm. cartridges were the M/34 Austrian (Steyer),a 127-grain bullet with considerably more power than the Parabellum, and the 9mm. Kurz, or "short" (equivalent to the .308 automatic bullet). Athird bullet used to some extent by the Germans was the 9 mm. Mauser.
In the 7.92 mm. group, the Germans had many versions, andthey never stopped development of different variations until the war wasofficially over. The bullet lengths varied a great deal through the differenttypes, but all were loaded to an overall length of 80.5 mm. The standard ballbullet was long, boattailed, and very well made (fig. 22). It was lead filled,had a gilding-metal-plated jacket, and weighed about 197 grains. Muzzle velocityvaried between 2,400 and 2,500 f.p.s., depending on the weapon in which fired.The Germans had started using steel cases in World War I, and by the end of1943, most German ammunition had that type of case.
FIGURE 22.-7.92mm. German ball ammunition.
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German tracer bullets were the best put out by any country-beautifullystreamlined and with excellent ballistics. German armor piercers were also verygood, being very stable and accurate at long ranges. The commonest type of armorpiercer had a hardened-steel core with plated-steel jacket and weighed 178grains. Other types appeared which used tungsten carbide and combinations forcores. Sintered iron and mild steel cores also came into use in ball ammunition.
The HE incendiary, called the observation bullet by theGermans, had a pellet in it which exploded on contact with any target, howeverfrail. The Germans maintained that it was used mainly for observation andrange-finding, but observers report having seen them in rifle clips andmachinegun belts.
The two main types of 7.92 mm. HEAT rifle cartridges were thePatr. (Patronen) 318 S.m.K. (Spitzgeschoss mit Stahlkern, pointed bullet withsteel core) and the Patr. 318 Polish. The first was an original German type,while the second was a Polish model adopted by the Germans. Muzzle velocity forthe German type was given as 3,550 f.p.s., and that for the Polish one a littlelower in the weapons for which they were intended.
Table 9 lists the principal types of small arms ammunitionalong with the guns in which they were used.
For mortars.-As in the case of Japanese mortarammunition, information available for German mortar ammunition was negligible.The reader is asked to take the descriptions of the German 5 cm. and 8 cm.mortar shells and compare and consider them along with descriptions of Japanesemortar ammunition (p. 22). In this way, perhaps, he may obtain a better pictureof the fragmentation and wounding potential of German mortar shells.
Two 5 cm. (50 mm.) HE German mortar shells were tested in1943 (fig. 23). Each shell, without explosive filler, weighed 1.57 pounds. The284 fragments recovered from one shell weighed 0.98 pounds, thus representing a62.4 percent recovery of fragments. For the other shell, 272 fragments wererecovered. The fragments weighed 1.13 pounds and represented a 71.9 percentrecovery. These data show that there were some 270 fragments per pound oforiginal metal, a proportion roughly twice as large as that for the Japanese 81mm. mortar shell (p. 22). It should be noted, however, that the many factorswhich cause variances in experiments of this nature make these comparisonsextremely crude.
The 8 cm. (81 mm.) mortar shell incorporated the Germanattempt to obtain an airburst. It was no reflection of endearment, but, in allprobability, familiarity which led the American soldier to call it"Bouncing Betty." This HE shell was quite conventional in designexcept for a cast nosecap which was secured to the projectile body by fourshearpins. Upon impact, a nondelay fuze in the cap ignited a smokeless powdercharge. The resulting explosion sheared the pins holding the cap to the body andthrew the shell from 5 to 10 feet into the air. In the meantime, a delay pelletwas ignited, which in turn ignited a booster charge that detonated the main TNTexplosive charge at
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TABLE 9.-German smallarms ammunition
Caliber | German abbreviation | Type | Weapons in which used | |
Mm. | Inches | |||
9 | 0.354 | Pist. Patr.1 08 | Pistol, ball | Pistole 08 (Luger); Pistole 38 (Walther); MP 34, MP 40; MP 38; Bergmann and Solothurn submachineguns. |
9 | .354 | Pist. Patr. 08 S.m.E. | Pistol, semi-armor-piercing | Do. |
7.92 | .312 | Patr. s.S. (i.L.) clipped, (o.L.) not in clips | Heavy pointed ball | Mauser Gew. 98; Kar. 98 K; Kar. 98 B; Kar. 98; MG 34; MG 42; and 7.92 mm. aircraft machineguns. |
7.92 | .312 | Patr. S.m.K | AP | Mauser Gew. 98; Kar. 98 K; Kar. 98 B; Kar. 98; FG 42; MG 34; MG 42; and 7.92 mm. aircraft machineguns. |
7.92 | .312 | Patr. S.m.K. L'Spur | Ap tracer | Do. |
7.92 | .312 | Patr. S.m.K. (H) | Super-armor-piercing with tungsten carbide core | Do. |
7.92 | .312 | Patr. 1.S | Light ball, special practice | Mauser Gew. 98; Kar. 98 K; Kar. 98 B; Kar 98; MG 34; MG 42; and 7.92 mm. aircraft machineguns. |
7.92 | .312 | Patr. S.m.E. | Mild steel ball | Mauser Gew. 98; Kar. 98 K; Kar. 98 B; Kar 98; FG 42; MG 34; MG 42; and 7.92 mm. aircraft machineguns. |
7.92 | .312 | Patr. S.m.K. | AP incendiary | Do. |
7.92 | .312 | B. Patr. | Incendiary explosive | Do. |
7.92 | .312 | Par. 318 or Patr. S. S.m.K. (HRs) L'Spur | AP tracer with tear gas | PzB. 38 and PzB. 39 AT rifles only |
7.92 | .312 | Patr. 318 (P) | AP | Polish Mascerzek, Model 35, AT rifle only (bolt-operated shot magazine weapon). |
1Patr.: Patronen (cartridge).
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FIGURE 23.-Fragmentsrecovered from one of two 5 cm. high explosive mortar shellsdetonated under test conditions in the Zone of Interior in 1943.
the approximate peak height of the bounce. This ingenious deviceproduced an airburst without the use of a precision time fuze. It was not aseffective or reliable as the time fuze but, on the other hand, neither did theAllies have a mortar shell which was equipped for bursting in midair.
The standard 8 cm. HE mortar shell filled with TNT weighed3.5 kg. (7? lb.). It was 12.95 inches in overall length, and the diameter was3.16 inches. The mean wall thickness was approximately 0.33 inches. The metalused in the body of the shell was a high quality casting of low carbon castiron.
Given certain basic facts on any particular shell-type ofmetal, total weight, diameter and thickness of the shell wall, type of powderand density of filling, outward velocity of shell wall at time of detonation,and the like-such factors as the distribution of fragments by size, velocityof fragments of
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various sizes, and retardation of velocity of fragments withdistance can be reliably estimated. These factors, or variables, can be extrapolatedfor their entire range when even limited empirical data are available.
Using such techniques and given certain data from static fragmentation tests,some characteristics of the German 8 cm. mortar shell were derived ofconsiderable interest. The conclusions are presented in figure 24. The only
57
basic assumption required was that the minimum velocity offragments was 1,000 f.p.s., a very conservative assumption. The criterion forincapacitation (roughly equivalent to hospitalization) was the ability offragments to penetrate 1 inch of wood. The cubes representing fragment size wereobtained by taking the geometrical mean of the class and, as illustrated, showproper relative sizes; absolute size is shown only in scale. Of course, theshape of fragments is generally not cubical, although one dimension must belimited to wall thickness (0.33 in., in this case) and the second dimension inlarger fragments is usually found to equal wall thickness. Thus, in the largerfragments, variance in size is often limited to the dimension of length.Finally, it should be observed that, while some fragments were of insufficientmass and velocity to meet the criterion of incapacitation, these couldincapacitate, although there is a good chance that they will not.
Many armies of the world were, eventually, to feel the burstof Soviet 120 mm. HE mortar shells-or their imitations-and the German Armywas one of them. Germany retaliated against the Red Army, however, bymanufacturing, herself, the Soviet-type 120 mm. mortar and shell. Figure 25shows both the Soviet and German shells. Figures 42 and 43 show the ChineseCommunist versions.
Gross dimensions and characteristics of other German mortarammunition are presented in table 10.
For artillery.-General characteristics of Germanartillery ammunition commonly used during World War II are presented in table11. Scattered references to fragmentation characteristics of German artilleryammunition used during World War II were available and are reviewed. While theinformation is still meager, there is, fortunately, some variety.
Two 50 mm. HE shells for German AT guns were detonated byU.S. Army ordnance personnel. While the specific model of the shells tested wasnot identified, the weights, empty, of the two specific rounds tested were 3.52and 3.54 pounds. A total of 202 fragments weighing 3.29 pounds was recoveredfrom one shell, and 193 fragments weighing 3.46 pounds were recovered from thesecond (fig. 26). This made the percent of fragments recovered 93.4 and 98.3percent, respectively. Taking, arbitrarily, a ratio of 200 fragments for 3.35pounds of metal, the number of fragments for 1 pound of metal, a rough measurewhich was previously adopted for comparative purposes, becomes 60 in this case.It must be noted in this and the other examples for which this roughapproximation was calculated that, in all probability, the unrecovered portionsrepresent large numbers of extremely small fragments which would greatlyincrease the total number of fragments if they could have been recovered andcounted. On the other hand, it was previously shown that these minute fragmentshave considerably less wounding potential. If, as was stated, one dimension ofshell fragments is usually a function of the thickness of the shell wall, thenmany of these extremely small pieces must be sliver shaped. They might notincapacitate a soldier immediately, but it is obvious that they could
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TABLE 10.-German mortarammunition
Nomenclature | Caliber | Overall length | Explosive component | Weight of ammunition | Fuze | Weapons in which used |
Cm. | Inches | Pounds | ||||
High explosive bomb | 5 | 8.625 | TNT | 2.2 | Wgr.Z. 38 | 5 cm. 1. Gr. W. 36. |
Wurfgranate 381 | 8 | 12.99 | Unidentified | 7.75 | Wgr.Z. 38 or 34 | 8 cm. s. Gr. W. 34. |
Wurfgranate 392 | 8 | 13.109 | ...do... | 7.75 | ...do... | Do. |
Wurfgranate 34 Nebel3 | 8 | 12.937 | Penthrite wax | 7.85 | ...do... | M. Gr. W. 34; Kz. Gr. W. 42. |
Wurfgranate 34 | 8 | 13.070 | Unidentified | 7.75 | ...do... | Kz. Gr. W. 42; 8 cm. s. Gr. W. 34. |
Wurfgranate 37 | 10 | 17.12 | TNT | 16.0 | Wgr.Z. 38 | 10 cm. Nebelwerfer 35. |
Wurfgranate 40 | 20 | 30.86 | ...do... | 49.94 | Wgr.Z. 36 | 20 cm. 1. Ladungswerfer. |
Wurfgranate 40 | 38 | 59.21 | Unidentified | 327.8 | ...do... | 38 cm. s. Ladungswerfer. |
1Contains a powder pellet under fuze to give delayaction.
2An improved model of 38.
3A sulfur trioxide smoke shell.
60-62
TABLE 11.-German artilleryammunition commonly used in World War II
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become real surgical problems when their localization andremoval is mandatory, such as in the case of foreign bodies in the eyeball.
Two types of 75 mm. ammunition were tested in August 1943 inthe Zone of Interior. One was a standard 75 mm. HE shell, and the other was a 75mm. HE hollow-charge shell. The fragmentation results are shown in table 12 andfigures 27 and 28. It can be seen that the number of fragments per pound for theHE shell was 170, while that for the hollow-charge shell was approximately 185.
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TABLE 12.-Fragmentationcharacteristics, German 75 mm. HE and hollow-charge artilleryshells
Type of shell | Round | Empty shell weight | Fragments | ||
Total | Weight | Recovered | |||
Pounds | Number | Pounds | Percent | ||
High explosive | 1 | 10.70 | 1,753 | 10.35 | 96.6 |
2 | 10.70 | 1,634 | 9.20 | 85.9 | |
High explosive hollow-charge | 1 | 8.50 | 1,374 | 6.56 | 77.1 |
2 | 8.51 | 1,263 | 7.73 | 90.8 | |
FIGURE 27.-Fragmentsrecovered from a German 75 mm. high explosive shell.
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FIGURE 28.-Fragmentsrecovered from a German 75 mm. hollow-charge shell.
In the introduction to this section on German ordnance, itwas stated that the German Army made extensive and telling use of AA/AT gunsagainst ground targets as the war went along. Later, it was shown that theoriginal Flak 18 AA gun was so used and eventually modified into the 8.8 cm.Flak 41, which was designed specifically as a multipurpose weapon. Thus, the"88" became a feared weapon, and an AA/AT gun became acasualty-producing weapon of no small consequence.
The HE 88 mm. shells tested were filled with amatol (43/57)and weighed approximately 22? pounds. The external diameter was 88 mm.(approximately 3? inches), and the average wall thickness was 0.60 inches. Whenfired against ground targets, a percussion or time fuze was employed. Two roundswere detonated in January 1943 (fig. 29). The rounds when empty weighed 19.17and 20.37 pounds. For the first shell, 84.6 percent of fragments-1,488 pieces,16.2 pounds-were recovered. For the second shell, there was a 78.6 percentrecovery consisting of 1,543 fragments weighing 16 pounds. The number offragments per pound in this experiment was not quite 95, one of
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FIGURE 29.-Fragmentsrecovered from a German 88 mm. high explosive shell.
the lowest ratios encountered so far. This finding is actuallymore apparent than real when one considers the low percent of recovery. Thesmaller fragments, which are many, were probably not recovered.
Other static detonation tests of the 88 mm. HE shell wereconducted. The basic data included fragmentation results and the mean, minimum,and maximum velocities of fragments over the first 10 feet. From this basicdata, the data shown in figure 30 were derived. The method of derivation wasbasically the same as that explained in the preceding section on mortarammunition (p. 53).
Fragmentation tests conducted in January 1942 on two roundsof German 105 mm. howitzer ammunition (fig. 31) showed the followingcharacteristics: The rounds when empty weighed 28.55 pounds. For both shells, 91percent of the fragments were recovered. For the first shell, there were 2,540pieces,
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weighing 25.98 pounds; for the second, 2,063 pieces, weighing26.03 pounds. In this case, the number of fragments per pound was considerablybelow 100, but it is obvious that the fragments are larger in size when theirnumbers are less per pound. This may be due to the fact that the shell wall isthicker. While the number of fragments is less, their size and the amount ofbursting charge will make a larger percent capable of inflicting casualties. Thereader
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FIGURE 31.-Fragmentsrecovered from two rounds of German 105 mm. howitzer ammunition.
should note that, while stressing the number of fragments inthese reviews of detonation tests, there was usually no information available onany criterion of wounding, particularly in relation to the effective radius ofburst. The latter should be considered in relation to absolute number offragments.
Other Missile-Producing Agents
The German ground forces employed a wide variety of hand,rifle, and signal pistol grenades for both antipersonnel and AT purposes. Thestandard HE hand grenade was a stick hand grenade (Stielhandgranate 24) whichconsisted of a hollow wood handle and a thin sheet metal head containing theexplosive filler. The grenade would detonate from 4 to 5 seconds after a pull
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on the porcelain ball located at the base of the wood handle.This grenade had a total length of 14 inches and weighed 1 pound 5 ounces.Stielhandgranate 43 was a modified version of the foregoing grenade with adetachable solid wood handle. The grenade could be thrown with or without thewood handle. A smooth or serrated fragmentation sleeve could be clipped aroundthe head of the grenade to increase its antipersonnel effect.
In addition to the standard stick-type grenade, two otheroffensive-type hand grenades had a similar design. A wood improvised grenade (Behelfshandgranate-Holz)consisted of a hollow cylindrical wood head screwed on a hollow wood handle. Thehead contained a 50-gram bursting charge. The other offensive-type grenade was aconcrete improvised hand grenade (Behelfshandgranate-Beton). This was verysimilar to the wood grenade except that the head was made of concrete andcontained a full 100-gram bursting charge. Both grenades were designed toproduce blast effects rather than primary fragmentation and were used by troopsadvancing in the open.
Of the standard German hand grenades, Stielhandgranate 24 andthe egg-type grenade (Eierhandgranate 39) were the most commonly used forms.This latter grenade consisted of a thin sheet metal egg-shaped case filled witha 4-ounce bursting charge and had a friction pull ignitor with a 4- to 5-seconddelay. The grenade had a total length of 3 inches, was 2 inches in maximumdiameter, and weighed 12 ounces.
Another offensive type was a disk grenade which had no outercasing but consisted of a disk cut from a precast or pressed pellet ofexplosives. The disk was prepared from the explosive RDX/wax and measured 35/16inches in diameter and 17/32 inch inthickness. A standard pull ignitor and detonator assembly with a 6-second delaywas inserted into the disk.
During the latter stages of World War II, the Germans issueda unique hollow-charge AT hand grenade (Panzerwurfmine 1 (L)) which was designedto be hand thrown at tanks from a distance of 20 to 30 yards. The grenade bodyconsisted of a metal core containing the explosive filler and concave metalretaining plates at the forward end. A hollow-charge sticky hand grenade wasalso recovered which consisted of a tapered steel body with a flat sticky pad atthe nose.
Several HE rifle grenades were used by the Germans and, sincethese were primarily antipersonnel weapons, they were capable of producingmissile casualties. The Gewehr Sprenggranate antipersonnel rifle or hand grenadecould be fired from a standard cup-type rifle discharger or thrown as a handgrenade. It consisted of a tubular steel body containing a penthrite waxexplosive filler, a direct-action nose fuze, and a base assembly incorporating aflash pellet, delay train, and self-destroying system. When the grenade waslaunched from the rifle, it was initiated normally by the PD fuze, but if thisfailed the flash pellet in the base would ignite a friction composition which inturn would ignite a 4?-second delay pellet initiating the detonation of themain bursting charge. The latter method of detonation was, of course,
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designed primarily to function when the grenade was used as ahand grenade. Various modifications of this grenade were issued and theseincluded models in which the pull ignitor for hand throwing was omitted, theself-destroying assembly was lacking, or an "all-ways" point fuze wasembodied which would initiate the charge no matter which way the grenade wouldstrike. The standard model had a maximum range of 265 yards as a rifle grenade.A later model (Gewehr Sprenggranate mit Gesteigerter Reichweite) of the HE handor rifle grenade was fired by a new propelling charge and had a maximum range ofonly 71 yards. In addition, the self-destroying device was eliminated. In bothcases, the propelling charge was a standard 7.92 mm. blank cartridge with a woodbullet crimped at the neck and sealed with wax.
Antitank grenades, although intended for use against armor,would frequently inflict secondary-missile casualties. The standard AT riflegrenade (Gewehr Panzergranate 30) consisted of a seamless steel tubular forwardsection containing a ballistic cap, hollow-charge cone, and TNT bursting chargeand a rear portion made up of light aluminum alloy containing a fuze andexploder system. The large AT rifle grenade (Gross Gewehr Panzergranate 40) wasa slight modification of the Gewehr Panzergranate 30 to accommodate a greaterbursting charge. Two additional hollow-charge rifle grenades were also issued,and they were similar in design but varied in that one (S.S. GewehrPanzergranate 46) had a maximum diameter of 46 mm. and the other (S.S. GewehrPanzergranate 61) had a maximum diameter of 61 mm.
An HE hollow-charge grenade (Gewehr Granatpatrone 30)consisted of a streamlined bell-shaped body with a slightly convex aluminumclosing disk, an aluminum hollow-charge liner cast with an RDX/wax filler, and agraze fuze screwed into a projection at the base of the body. The grenadeexploded when it hit an object or merely grazed a target.
A number of antipersonnel and chemical grenades could befired from the 27 mm. signal and grenade pistol. The standard German signalpistol (Leuchtpistole) was a smoothbore weapon and fired a variety of 40different signal cartridges and two kinds of HE pistol grenades. One of thelatter, Wurfgranatpatrone 326, consisted of a small HE projectile fitted to asignal cartridge case. The second type, Wurfk?rper 361, consisted of a standardegg-type grenade attached to a projectile stem which fitted into a loosesmoothbore barrel liner.
The Kampfpistole was a later modification of theLeuchtpistole with the addition of a small sight and rifling of the bore. Withthese alterations, a nose-fuzed HE grenade could be fired in addition to thestandard signal cartridges. In the latest development of the signal pistol, theoriginal model was fitted with a loose steel rifled liner, a combination frontand rear sight, and a folding stock. By means of these alterations, the pistolcould fire a new-type hollow-charge grenade at close quarters against tanks.
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Other Fragment-Producing Agents, Landmines
German landmines had undergone a rather extensivedevelopmental program and a wide variety of models were encountered in thefield. The Tellermines (T. Mi. 29, 35, 42, and 43) were metal AT mines of a flatcircular, design which varied in size, shape, area of pressure plate, and intype and amount of the bursting charge. The Sprengriegel 43 was a rectangular,encased charge of TNT which could be fired electrically but required a pressureof approximately 440 pounds for activating the ignitors. A wood box mine (Holzmine42) was also issued for use as an AT device or as a boobytrap. The bodyconsisted of a wood box of three-quarters of an inch lumber which was dividedinto four compartments by removable partitions. Two explosive charges of 50/50amatol were placed in the two side compartments; the central compartmentcontained the primer charges and the end compartment, the operating mechanism. Acompletely nonmetallic AT mine was the Topfmine which had a hard pulplike outercasing and a glassed ignitor.
One of the most commonly encountered antipersonnel mines wasthe "Potmine" (Behelfs-Sch?tzenmine S.150) (fig. 32). The pressedsteel body was 2? inches in diameter and 2 inches high. When filled with a5?-ounce explosive charge of powdered picric acid, the total weight of the minewas 12? ounces. A moderate pressure on the top of the ignitor would crush themetal drum, break a glass ampule filled with acid, and thereby permit a chemicalinteraction between the acid and a white powder flash composition. The resultingflash set off the detonator which ignited the main bursting charge.
FIGURE 32.-Antipersonnelmine, Behelfs-Sch?tzenmine S.150.
During the course of World War II, the Germans utilized a numberof mines which depended upon shrapnel for their antipersonnel effect. One ofthese, the S. Mine 35 (fig. 33) was 5 inches high, 4 inches in diameter, andweighed 9? pounds. There was an outer steel casing within which was fitted aninner steel cylinder. The latter contained an ignitor, a central delay tube,
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FIGURE 33.-Antipersonnelshrapnel mine (S. Mine 35).
a black powder propelling charge, a main explosive charge,and approximately 350 steel balls, rods, or scraps of metal alined along thecylinder wall. A direct pressure of approximately 15 pounds activated apush-type ignitor. A pull-type ignitor could be connected to trip wires, whilean electric squib-type ignitor could be fired by electrical means. In any case,when the ignitor fired, flashes of flame descended the central steel tube andset off the black powder propelling charge which threw the inner cylinder intothe air. Concurrent with this, the detonator was ignited which, in turn, set offthe main charge. The delay in the detonation of the main charge permitted theinner cylinder to rise from 6 to 7 feet above the ground before its casing wouldbe fragmented to release the steel shrapnel balls. The latter would be effectiveup to a radius of 150 to 200 yards.
The S. Mine 44 was of the same basic design as the S. Mine 35but varied in the method of igniting the main charge and in the use of manylayers of small steel shot. An inner cylinder contained a detonator, a pullignitor, and a percussion ignitor. The latter was actuated by a direct pressureof 21 pounds or by a tension of 14 pounds applied through lateral trip wires.The pull ignitor was located in the base of the cylinder immediately below thedetonator. It was attached to the base of the outer casing by a 3-foot length ofcoiled wire. Operation of the percussion ignitor fired a fast-burning gunpowderpropellant which caused the inner cylinder to be thrown upward. When the coiledwire was fully extended at about 1? feet above ground level, the pull ignitoractivated the detonator which, in turn, set off the main explosive charge.Accordingly, the small steel shrapnel balls were released at a lower level thanin the S. Mine 35 and the effective radius was less-110 yards with a 22-yardlethal radius.
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In an attempt to reduce the metallic content of theantipersonnel mine and increase the difficulty in its detection, a glass mine (Glasmine43 (f)) was developed. This consisted of an outer glass casing 4.2 inches inheight, from 4? to 6 inches in diameter, and from 0.25 to 0.40 inch inthickness. Approximately 40 pounds of direct pressure was required to break theglass shear plate and activate either a chemical or a mechanized ignitor.Several models of wood antipersonnel mines were also manufactured and employedagainst infantry, cavalry, and light vehicles. The Sch?-Mine 42 consisted of acasing of impregnated plywood or hardened compressed fibrous cardboard filledwith a 100-gram explosive charge. Two other wood mines-Models 42(N) and 43(N)-werealso encountered which consisted of an impregnated wood body with a cast TNTfiller. The 42(N) mine functioned when a pressure was applied to an ignitorlocated in the top of the body, and the 43(N) was detonated when pressure on thelid sheared two wood dowels on the front of the body and released the safetypin. The functioning load of the ignitors used in both of these mines wasapproximately 75 pounds. Mines similar to the Sch?-Mine were to become favoritedefensive weapons of the Communist forces in North Korea.
Distribution of Weapons
As in the case of Japanese ordnance, the reader would be leftunaware of the relative amount of use made of the weapons described unless hehad some idea of how they were distributed. The division organization in theGerman Army (table 13) was the basic unit of combined arms. From the outbreak ofthe war until the late summer of 1943, comparatively minor changes occurred inthe tables of organization of most types of German divisions. The averagestrength for that period was from 15,000 to 17,000 and, with normally attachedtroops, usually reached some 20,000 men. From the summer of 1943 on, however,several series of new tables of organization and equipment were issued. In allthe reorganizations, the trend was clearly toward economizing manpower andsimultaneously increasing firepower by a careful distribution of large numbersof automatic small arms, by lowering the number of mortars, AT guns, and tanks,and, at the same time, by increasing potentially their calibers and weights.These changes resulted in lowering the table of organization strength of adivision to approximately 11,000 to 13,000 in January 1945. By that time,however, many divisions were actually of only about regimental strength in ablebodies.
The infantry division, old type, was the basic Germandivision from the fall of Poland until summer, 1943. Like the Americantriangular division, it consisted of three regiments, each with threebattalions. The 1944-type division was the midpoint in a reorganization from theold type to a drastically reduced division in 1945. The fundamental revision wasthe reduction of battalions from three to two per regiment, platoons from fourto three in the rifle companies, and accompanying reductions throughout thedivision. The Volks Grenadier division, three regiments of two battalionseach, was one of
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TABLE 13.-Weapons andequipment of main types of German divisions
Weapon and equipment | Type of divisions | ||||||||
Infantry, old type | Infantry, 1944 type | Infantry, two regiment type | Volks Grenadier | Army Mountain | Army Motorized | Army Armored | SS Armored | Air Force Parachute | |
Rifles or carbines | 15,500 | 9,069 | --- | 6,054 | --- | 9,455 | 9,186 | 11,513 | 9,689 |
Pistols | 1,100 | 1,981 | --- | 1,536 | --- | 3,222 | 3,317 | 4,064 | 3,810 |
Submachineguns | 700 | 1,503 | --- | 2,064 | --- | 1,441 | 1,543 | 2,050 | 3,026 |
Light machineguns | 527 | 566 | 497 | 369 | 485 | 1,019 | 1,157 | 1,465 | 930 |
Heavy machineguns | 116 | 90 | 52 | 54 | 84 | 82 | 64 | 100 | 80 |
Mortars: | |||||||||
| 81 mm. | 58 | 48 | 42 | 42 | 48 | 52 | 46 | 58 | 125 |
| 120 mm. | --- | 28 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 16 | 24 | 63 |
Bazookas or AT rifles | 90 | 108 | --- | 216 | 72 | --- | --- | --- | 250 |
Flamethrowers | 20 | 20 | 16 | 12 | 20 | 26 | 68 | 74 | 20 |
Rocket projectors, 150 or 210 mm. | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | 18 | --- |
Guns: | |||||||||
| AA, 20 mm. | --- | 12 | 12 | --- | 12 | 75 | 74 | 114 | 39 |
| AT, 20 mm., or tank | 11 | --- | --- | --- | --- | 38 | 38 | 38 | --- |
| AT, 28/20 mm. | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | 3 | 3 | --- |
| AA/AT, 37 mm. | --- | --- | --- | 9 | 3 | --- | 8 | 8 | --- |
| AT, 75 mm. (Mtr-Dr) | 75 | 21 | 20 | 9 | 24 | 30 | 12 | 12 | 21 |
| AT, 75 mm. (Sp) | --- | 14 | --- | 14 | --- | 44 | 47 | --- | 14 |
| Tank, 75 mm. (long) | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | 48 | 52 | 64 | --- |
| Tank, 75 mm. (superlong) | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | 51 | 62 | --- |
| AA/AT, 88 mm. | --- | --- | 12 | --- | --- | 8 | 8 | 12 | 12 |
| 75 mm. | --- | --- | --- | 18 | 24 | --- | --- | --- | --- |
Infantry howitzers: | |||||||||
| 75 mm. | 20 | 18 | 12 | 38 | 14 | --- | --- | --- | 20 |
| 75 mm. (Sp) | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | 12 | 24 | --- |
| 150 mm. | 6 | 6 | 4 | --- | 4 | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 150 mm. (Sp) | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | 12 | 12 | 12 | --- |
Gun/howitzers: | |||||||||
| 105 mm. | 36 | 36 | 24 | 24 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 24 |
| 105 mm. (Sp) | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | 12 | 12 | 12 | --- |
Howitzers: | |||||||||
| 150 mm. | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 112 | 12 |
| 150 mm. (Sp) | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | 6 | 6 | 6 | 12 |
Pz. Kpfw: | |||||||||
| IV | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | 48 | 52 | 64 | --- |
| V | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | 51 | 62 |
1Also furnished were 12 heavy guns.
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the latest organizations and reflected in name and weaponsthe emergency which had approached the fatherland. There is a further decreasein personnel, an increase in the proportion of small automatic weapons per man,and the substitution of medium artillery with larger numbers of light artillery.The other types of divisions are shown for comparative purposes and to round outthe picture.
CAUSATIVE AGENTS OF BATTLE CASUALTIES IN WORLD WAR II
In order to determine which type of enemy weapon was mosteffective against U.S. troops in World War II, it would be necessary to know thecausative agent for each wound inflicted. Not only was such informationimpossible to get for all areas for the entire war period but what was availablewas often inaccurate. Casualties who survived were frequently not able todetermine the weapons that had wounded them. For those killed outright or whodied of wounds, no opinion was available if there had been no witnesses. Promptinterment of bodies seldom left time for recovery of the missile that killed.Casualty surveys which supplied this type of information were made only incertain areas at specified times. However, these studies used different methodsof reporting, and the lack of a uniform system made assessment and comparison ofreports difficult.
Nevertheless, many interesting facts can be brought out fromthe material available. A report on the causative agents of battle casualties inWorld War II showed the comparative incidence of casualties from different typesof weapons for several theaters. Compilers of the report believed that, whilethe more detailed subdivisions within their three major classes were open toquestion, their findings on the percent of total casualties due to small arms,artillery and mortars, and "miscellaneous" were reasonably accurate.From these they drew the following conclusions:
1. Small arms fire accounted for between 14 and 31 percent ofthe total casualties, depending upon the theater of action: The Mediterraneantheater, 14.0 percent; the European theater, 23.4 percent; and the Pacifictheaters, 30.7 percent.
2. Artillery and mortar fire together accounted for 65percent of the total casualties in the European and Mediterranean theaters, 64.0and 69.1, respectively. In the Pacific, they accounted for 47.0 percent.
The report showed the relative effectiveness of causativeagents, which inflicted casualties on 217,070 living wounded of the First andThird U.S. Armies, European Theater of Operations, 1944-45 (table 14).
It is also interesting to note from two tables taken fromstudies conducted on Bougainville and in Italy that more casualties in the SouthPacific were caused by rifle or machinegun fire than in the North Africantheater:
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South Pacific | North Africa | ||
Agent | Percent | Agent | Percent |
Shell fragments | 50 | Shell fragments | 75 |
Bullets: | Bullets | 20 | |
| Rifle | 25 | Mines | 2 |
| Machinegun | 8 | Bombs | 1 |
33 | Other | 2 | |
Grenade | 12 | Total | 100 |
Mines | 2 | ||
Other | 3 | ||
| 100 | ||
Causative agent | Wounded | ||
Number | Percent | ||
Small arms | 53,334 | 24.6 | |
Artillery and mortar: | |||
| Shell fragments | 130,718 | 60.2 | |
| Blast | 6,880 | 3.2 | |
Bombs | 10,559 | 4.9 | |
Burns | 2,498 | 1.2 | |
Other | 13,081 | 5.9 | |
| 217,070 | 100.0 | |
NORTH KOREAN FORCES ORDNANCE MATERIEL
The weapons used by the CCF (Chinese Communist Forces) in theKorean War were of diverse origins and types. The relatively limited munitionsproduction in China before 1950 had forced the CCF to rely heavily upon weaponscaptured from the Japanese, the Chinese Nationalists, and the U.S. forces. Withthe signing of the Chinese Communist-Soviet 30-year mutual assistance pact inFebruary 1950, Soviet weapons became available in increasing numbers, but,initially, the CCF entered Korea without Soviet weapons. Later, these Sovietweapons were supplemented by Chinese copies of foreign designs and by limitedquantities of weapons from almost every other arms-manufacturing countryincluding Great Britain and France.
The NKA (North Korean Army) was from the outset equipped withSoviet weapons of World War II vintage. Throughout the period of the Korean War,Soviet weapons captured in Korea continued to be those manufactured in orearlier than 1950.
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Pistols and revolvers.-Pistols and revolvers amongthe Communist forces in North Korea had little combat significance because ofthe much more effective use by half-trained troops of the machine pistol or thesubmachinegun. They were, however, still issued to officers, service troops,combat and transportation vehicle crews, and flying personnel as weapons ofpersonal defense. Over a dozen types were available in calibers from 6.35 mm. to11.4 mm. The most common pieces used were the Japanese 8 mm. pistols, 7.63 mm.Mauser pistols of both German and Chinese manufacture, and Soviet 7.62 mm.pistols and revolvers.
Submachineguns.-The submachinegun was one of theprincipal weapons of the Communist troops in Korea. Various models of the U.S.Thompson submachinegun and the caliber .45 M3, including copies made in Chinesearsenals, were widely distributed to CCF troops.
Before 1950, the U.S.S.R. began supplying the North Koreanswith Soviet 7.62 mm. PPSh1941 and PPS1943 submachineguns. These were also issuedto the CCF following their disastrous spring offensive of 1951. The PPSh1941,the more prevalent, was a blowback operated, semiautomatic or full-automaticweapon with a 71-round drum or 35-round box magazine. The improved all-metalversion of 1943, the PPS43, was also blowback operated but fired full automaticonly. Both weapons used the standard 7.62 mm. Soviet auto-pistol cartridge.Effective ranges in the earlier model were approximately 330 yardssemiautomatic, 220 yards in short bursts, and 110 yards in long bursts. Thepractical rate of fire varied between 40 and 150 rounds per minute depending onwhether it was firing semiautomatic, in short bursts, or in long bursts. ThePPS1943 had a practical rate of fire of 100 rounds per minute and an effectiverange of approximately 220 yards for short bursts and 110 yards for long bursts.As the war progressed, the Chinese Communists began to produce copies of thesemodels in substantial numbers.
Rifles and carbines.-The enemy in North Korea usedrifles obtained mainly from four sources: Those captured from U.S. forces orfrom forces armed by the United States, those captured from the Japanese, thosesupplied by the Soviet Union, and those manufactured for or by China during orafter the days of the Republic.
The most important of the U.S. weapons used were the.30-caliber M1 rifles and carbines. It was reported that whole units of the CCFwere armed with the M1 carbine. The 1903 Springfield was also used extensively.
Japanese 6.5 and 7.7 mm. rifles and carbines were verypopular during the first years of the Korean War. These were gradually replacedby the Soviet bolt-action rifles and carbines chambered for the powerful 7.62mm. Soviet service cartridge. The 7.62 mm. M1944 carbine, formerly the standardshoulder arm of the Soviet infantry, was also frequently employed by theCommunist forces. Thus was a shorter version of the earlier Russian standardinfantry rifle, the M1891/30, also commonly used by the North Koreans. The M1944weighed 8.6 pounds with sling and had a practical rate of fire of approximately10 rounds per minute and an effective range of 440 yards.
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Those arms manufactured earlier for, or by, Nationalist Chinawere all chambered for the 7.92 mm. service cartridge. Among these weredifferent models of the conventional bolt-action Mauser rifles, the ZH 29 Czechautoloading rifle, and some 1888 German rifles.
Machineguns.-The CCF in North Korea acquired theirmachineguns in much the same way as they did their rifles and carbines. In thelight machinegun class, they had captured a limited supply of Browning Automaticrifles and 1919A4 light machineguns from U.S. forces and from forces of othercountries armed with weapons made by the United States. Some caliber .50Browning heavy machineguns of U.S. manufacture were also used. From theJapanese, they had taken substantial quantities of 6.5 and 7.7 mm. light andheavy machineguns, including the 6.5 mm. Model 11 (1922), the 6.5 mm. Model 96(1936), and the 7.7 mm. Model 99 (1939) light machineguns and the Types 92 and01, 7.7 mm. heavy machineguns. These types were discussed in the section onJapanese ordnance materiel.
Of Soviet origin were the various Degtyarev machine riflesand light machineguns represented by the DP, the DPM, and the DTM. All threetypes were gas operated and air cooled, and all used the standard 7.62 mm.series of cartridges. The feeding device of the DP and the DPM was a 47-rounddrum magazine, and each model weighed about 26 pounds with loaded drum. Thepractical rate of fire was 80 rounds per minute with an effective range up to880 yards against group targets. The DTM had a 60-round drum magazine and wasused both as a tank and as a ground gun.
Two other Soviet weapons used were the 7.62 mm. Maxim M1910heavy machinegun (with an effective range of 1,100 yards and a rate of fire of250-300 rounds per minute) and the 7.62 mm. Goryunov M1943 heavy machinegunwhich was a modification of the Maxim with similar performance but much lighter.There was also a 12.7 mm. (caliber .50) DShK M1938 AA machinegun. The DShK M1938had a practical rate of fire of 300-350 rounds per minute and an effective rangeof approximately 3,000 feet when used against aircraft and approximately 3,300yards when used as a ground gun.
The Chinese themselves manufactured copies of two excellentweapons-the ZB 26 light machinegun and the Maxim heavy machinegun (fig. 34),both of which fired 7.92 mm. ammunition. The ZB 26 was gas operated and eithersemiautomatic or full automatic. It weighed close to 20 pounds and had a20-round box magazine. Effective range was 875 yards with a rate of fire of150-200 rounds per minute. The Chinese Maxim was practically identical to the1908 Maxim but with considerable changes in the mount.
Mortars.-Mortars manufactured in Chinese Communistfactories and those captured from the Japanese, the Chinese Nationalists, andthe United Nations Forces in Korea were used extensively by Communist forces inNorth Korea, often as a substitute for artillery. Those produced in ChineseCommunist arsenals were the 60 mm. Model 31 (copy of the U.S. M2), the 82 mm.Model 20, and the 120 mm. Model 44. Captured U.S. materiel included the 60 mm.,the 81 mm., and the 4.2-inch mortars. Japanese models used were all
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FIGURE 34.-CCFMaxim heavy machinegun, 7.92 mm., Model 24.
81 mm. weapons. Three models of the Soviet 82 mm. battalionmortars, the M1937, M1941, and M1943, were widely used. These Soviet weaponsweighed about 12.7 pounds each and fired HE shells up to 3,326 yards. The Soviet120 mm. mortar (figs. 35 and 36) remained as effective in Korea as it was duringWorld War II when used by both the Red Army and the Germans.
Artillery.-Until the close of World War II, whenthey acquired quantities of Japanese-made artillery, the CCF lacked bothartillery materiel and experience in its use. Their supply of artillery wasincreased between 1946 and 1949 with the capture of considerable amounts fromthe Chinese Nationalists, including modern U.S. made field artillery. WithSoviet aid in the Korean War, the CCF received quantities of Soviet artillery,as the North Koreans had before them.
Captured Japanese infantry guns and mountain artillery whichthe CCF used were the Type 92 (1932) 70 mm. battalion howitzer and the 75 mm.Type 41 (1908) infantry and Type 94 (1934) mountain guns. Limited quantities ofthe U.S. 75 mm. pack howitzer M1A1 and Soviet 76 mm. regimental and mountainguns and 76 mm. howitzers were also used in addition to various other 75 mm.pieces of French, German, Japanese, and Swedish origin.
Field artillery employed by enemy troops consisted primarilyof weapons made in Japan, the United States, and the Soviet Union. Lightartillery used was made up largely of several types of Japanese 75 mm. guns and105 mm. howitzers and field guns, Soviet 76 mm. divisional guns, and the U.S.105 mm. howitzer M2A1. Ballistic characteristics for the Japanese models havebeen given previously. The Soviet 76 mm. (M1942) divisional gun, weighing 2,460pounds, was capable of firing a 13.7-pound HE projectile a maximum distance of14,550 yards. The Soviet 57 mm. AT Gun (M1943) was also extensively used.
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Most important of the Soviet medium field artillery piecesused included the 122 mm. howitzer M1938 (fig. 37), the 122 mm. corps gunM1931/37, and the 152 mm. gun howitzer M1938. The M1938 howitzer weighed 4,960pounds, had a maximum range of 12,900 yards, and fired an HE projectile weighing48 pounds. The 122 mm. M1931/37 corps gun weighed over three times as much asthe M1938 howitzer and was capable of firing a 55-pound projectile 22,750
FIGURE 37.-Soviet122 mm. howitzer, Model 1938, in firing position.
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yards. The 152 mm. (M1938) gun howitzer (fig. 38), heaviest ofthe three, fired a 96-pound shell approximately 18,880 yards.
Japanese 150 mm. howitzers and guns and a small number ofU.S. 155 mm. howitzers M1917A1 were employed along with a variety of British,French, and German weapons ranging in caliber from 75 mm. to 150 mm.
The Chinese Communists manufactured fairly exact copies ofthe smaller Japanese artillery pieces but did not attempt to duplicate thelarger ones. Among the principal models copied were the 75 mm. Type 41 (1908)infantry gun, the 75 mm. Type 94 (1934) mountain gun, and the 70 mm. Type 92(1932) infantry howitzer.
FIGURE 38.-Soviet152 mm. gun howitzer, Model 1938 (M10), with carriage.
Rocket launchers.-The Communists in North Korea wereagain supplied by the Soviet Union in the matter of rocket launchers. The modelissued was the 8-railed 132 mm. M13 which fired 16 fin-stabilized HE rockets.Maximum range of the 94-pound rockets was approximately 9,500 yards. Thisweapon, normally mounted on a 6 x 6 truck, possessed relatively good mobilityand heavy-fire effect but lacked the range and accuracy of conventionalartillery. For this reason, it was used primarily to cover area targets sincefire against point targets was not practical.
The Chinese Communists designed and manufactured a six-roundrocket launcher, 102 mm. A3, from which they fired a Chinese copy of the U.S.4.5-inch rocket. This launcher was mounted on a two-wheeled carriage and waslight enough to be transported by truck.
Ammunition.-North Korea was almost completely dependentupon the Soviet Union for the ammunition it used during the Korean War. SomeJapanese and captured U.S. ammunition was also used.
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The Chinese Communists depended largely on ammunition derived from differentforeign nations, but they also manufactured some modified or exact copies ofproducts of several other nations. At the close of World War II, they acquiredquantities of Japanese ammunition. When they gained control of the Chinesemainland in 1949, large Chinese Nationalist stocks were captured, andNationalist arsenals were seized. These arsenals, many originally inherited fromthe Japanese by the Nationalists at the close of World War II, continued toproduce Japanese-type ammunition for the Communists. Varying amounts of British,Swedish, French, Italian, and German types were
TABLE 15.-CommunistChina and U.S.S.R. small arms ammunition used by NKA and CCF1
Nomenclature | Type of construction | Projectile | Weapons in which used | |
Length | Weight | |||
Inches | Grains | |||
7.62 mm: | ||||
| Type 50 | Ball | 0.55 | 87 | Type 50 submachinegun, Type 51 automatic pistol. |
| Type R | Unidentified | .65 | 108 | Nagant revolver M1895. |
| Type P | ...do... | .55 | 87 | TT Pistol M1933; all Soviet submachineguns. |
| Model 1908, Type L | Ball | 1.12 | 150 | All Soviet 7.62 mm. rifles, carbines, and machineguns. |
| Model 1930, Type D | ...do... | 1.30 | 185 | Do. |
| Model 1930, Type B-30 | AP | 1.30 | 184 | All Soviet 7.62 mm. ground machineguns, rifles, and carbines. |
| Type unidentified | AP, tracer | 1.58 | 157 | Soviet 7.62 ground machineguns and rifles. |
| Model 1940, Type BS-40 | AP, incendiary | 1.20 | 187 | In shoulder weapons only. |
| Model 1932, Type B-32 | ...do... | 1.44 | 155 | All Soviet 7.62 mm. machineguns and rifles. |
| Type BZT | AP, incendiary, tracer | 1.58 | 142 | Do. |
12.7 mm: | ||||
| Type unidentified | HE, incendiary | 2.48 | 660 | DShK M1938 AA machinegun |
| Model 1930, Type B-30 | AP | 2.45 | 788 | Do. |
Type BS-41 | AP, incendiary | (2) | (2) | Do. |
| Type unidentified | ...do... | 2.50 | 725 | Do. |
| Model 1932, Type B-32 | ...do... | 2.46 | 745 | Do. |
| Type BZT | AP, incendiary, tracer | 2.49 | 681 | Do. |
1Communist China was the country of origin for theType 50 small arms ammunition; the U.S.S.R. was the country of origin for allthe other ammunition.
2Unconfirmed.
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also collected. Soviet ammunition was received in large amounts following CCFentry into the Korean War and was used along with the U.S. ammunition which theenemy captured. The Chinese Communists manufactured .45 caliber small armsammunition which literally defied differentiation from U.S. .45 caliberammunition when discovered in casualties. Initially, CCF use of this ammunitioncaused considerable consternation since no foreign nation had ever manufacturedand used .45 ammunition against American soldiers.
Ammunition manufactured by the Chinese Communists was erraticin quality-sometimes good and sometimes poor. Reasons for this were loosemanufacturing standards, lack of adequate forces of skilled workers,unsatisfactory machinery, and shortages of raw materials. Often, small armscartridges were picked up after firing with cracked necks. Deficient packagingof the ammunition frequently resulted in serious deterioration of originallyundefective contents.
General characteristics of ammunition commonly used by theenemy in Korea and not previously described are presented in tables 15, 16, and17.
TABLE 16.-CommunistChina and U.S.S.R. mortar ammunition used by the NKA and CCF 1
Projectile | Explosive charge | Fuze | Weight (Complete round)2 | Weapons in which used |
60 mm: | Pounds | |||
| HE mortar shell | TNT | Point detonating | 3.25 | Type 31 mortar. |
| HE mortar shell (long)3 | RDX | ...do... | 8.0 | Do. |
82 mm: | ||||
| HE mortar (6 fins)4 | Cast TNT | Instantaneous | 8.59 | Type 20 (1931) mortar |
| HE mortar (8 fins) | ...do... | Point detonating | 8.29 | Do. |
| 0.832 mortar shell, fragmentation. | Schneiderite/TNT | ...do... | 6.95 | Various 82 mm. mortars |
| 0.832 D | Amatol 90/10 | ...do... | 6.95 | Do. |
120 mm: | ||||
| HE mortar (short)5 | Potassium nitrate/TNT 50/50 | ...do... | 28.75 | Type 33 (1944) mortar |
| HE mortar (long)6 | Cast TNT | ...do... | 27.88 | Do. |
| HE mortar (extra long) | TNT | Point detonating impact | 46 | Do. |
1The U.S.S.R. was the country of origin for the0.832 and 0.832 D mortar ammunition; Communist China was the country of originfor the other mortar ammunition.
2Without increments.
3This shell has supplementary 120 mm. warheads filled with TNT.
4This shell has 6 fins for stabilization.
5This shell has 8 fins.
6This shell has 12 fins.
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TABLE 17.-U.S.S.R.artillery ammunition probably used by NKA and CCF
Caliber | Weight (complete round) | Type of projectile filler | Fuze1 | Weapons in which used | Type of burst2 |
Mm. | Pounds | ||||
37 | 3.23 | TNT | MG-8 | Model 1939 AA Gun | Fragmentation |
All 76 | 12-25 | TNT, amatol, schneiderite, TNT cyclonite, cyclonite aluminum, or ball shrapnel and black powder. | High velocity AP have no fuze or use a KTM-1, KTM-3, KT-1, KT-3, T-5, T-11, MD-5, MD-7, D, BM, 3GT, 22-second, or 22 PG | Divisional guns, tank guns, self-propelled guns, AA guns, mountain guns, 76 mm. regimental guns | Fragmentation, high explosive, and combined fragmentation-high explosive |
All 122 | 56-89 | TNT, amatol, RDX and aluminum, RDX/TNT, shrapnel and black powder | High velocity AP have no fuze or use an RG-6, RGM, RGM-2, RGM-3, D-1, MD-8, V-229, 45-second, or T-6 | 122 mm. howitzers, corps guns, tank guns, self-propelled guns | Combined fragmentation-high explosive and high explosive. |
All 152 | 99-131 | TNT, ball shrapnel | RGM, RGM-2, RGM-6, RG-6, D-1, KTMF, KTD, 45-second, or T-6 | 152 mm. howitzers, self-propelled guns | Do. |
1Soviet artillery fuzes, in general,are of orthodox design. They are classified by location on the projectile, intwo main categories: (1) Point detonating and (2) base detonating. They are alsoclassified by their type of action as impact, combination time and impact, ortime fuzes.
2Soviet artillery uses three kinds of HE projectiles: (1) Fragmentation,designed to destroy personnel, equipment, and aeriel targets by means offragments; (2) high-explosive, intended primarily to destroy temporaryfield fortifications, such as trenches and earth and timber emplacements, aswell as to destroy personnel and equipment, by means of blast effect; and (3) fragmentation-highexplosive, a combination of the other two types. It gives less fragmentationand greater blast effect than the fragmentation projectile but greaterfragmentation and less blast effect than the HE projectile. The fragmentationeffect predominates over the blast effect in fragmentation high explosiveprojectiles of calibers up to 122 mm. and the blast effect predominates incalibers of 122 mm. and larger. The fragmentation-high explosive projectile isused against the same targets as the fragmentation and the high-explosive; thesetting of the fuze determines whether its principal effect will befragmentation or blast.
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Again in Korea, the mortar was used extensively. It was theideal weapon for the relatively close-in fighting in rugged mountainous terrainwhich characterized much of the operations in Korea. Whether it was inadvertentor intentional is debatable, but, in Korea, the Communist use of cruder castmetals in mortar shells seemed greatly to increase the number of fragments pershell and the effectiveness of their antipersonnel mortar fire when compared toconventional steel-walled shells. Often, the number of fragments per shell wasmany times that described previously for Japanese and German rounds. Theapparent crudeness of the CCF mortar shells can be seen in figures 39, 40, 41,and 42, showing various 82 mm. and 120 mm. shells.
Figure 43 shows the CCF copy of the American M48, 75 mm.artillery round.
FIGURE 39.-CCF82 mm. mortar shell, model unidentified.
FIGURE 40.-CCF82 mm. mortar shell, model unidentified, with eight fins and point-detonatingfuze.
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FIGURE 41.-CCFshort 120 mm. mortar shell, high explosive.
Grenades.-Grenades of wide variety were used liberallyby the Communist forces in Korea because of the relative ease and cheapness oftheir manufacture and because of the general shortage of heavy weapons andartillery among the troops. The most common, as well as the most effectivetypes, were stick hand grenades, fragmentation hand and rifle grenades, and HEAThand grenades, all of Chinese manufacture. Effective also were Soviet RPG-43 andRPG-6 HEAT hand grenades and the Soviet F-1 fragmentation grenade (fig. 44).
The Chinese-made stick hand grenades were similar to theGerman "potato-masher" type in design. They were liable to be filledwith anything, but picric acid was common. Even dynamite-filled grenades werefound! Most of the grenades had a friction pull-type ignitor. The fuze wasinstantaneous to 6-second delay. The HEAT grenades depended upon a fiber or
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FIGURE 44.-Sovietfragmentation hand grenade, F-1, with fuze.
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cloth tail for stabilization. One of this type, the Type 3 HEAThand grenade had an overall length of 7 inches and an instantaneous impact typeof fuze.
The Soviet RPG-43 HEAT hand grenade was filled with 1.35pounds of cyclotol and had an instantaneous impact fuze. Average range was 17-22yards with an effective radius of fragmentation of 22 yards. The Soviet RPG-6had about the same average range as the RPG-43 but was filled with TNT and hadan effective radius of fragmentation of 25 yards.
Landmines.-Landmines were used extensively by theenemy because their use afforded them a chance to improvise and allowed them toutilize fairly effective "homemade" weapons. Their standardantipersonnel models were designated Landmine No. 8 and Armor-Piercing No. 4.Two Soviet models commonly employed were the PMD-6 and PMD-7 which closelyresembled the German Sch?-Mine. Weighing under a pound each, these woodbox-shaped mines had a cylindrical charge of TNT and an MUV pull fuze. Becauseof the lack of metal parts in their construction, they were hard to detect withmine detectors.
Improvised models were in many different forms such asbangalore torpedoes, artillery and mortar shells, aerial bombs, and handgrenades. They also were in explosive-filled containers such as tin cans, woodboxes, fuel drums, barrels, glass bottles, clay pots, or other types ofcontainers. Detonation could be accomplished either by trip wire, pressure, orautomatic firing circuit.
Because of fluctuations in battle-up and down the length ofKorea-a large number of mine casualties were caused by mines planted byfriendly personnel in the defense and during retrograde movements.
